paper 1 geography

does not include case studys- paper 1: natural hazards, living world, physical landscapes: rivers and coasts- NO GLACIERS

what factors affect the risk of natural hazards

urbanisation- densely populated urban areas increase risk

poverty- housing shortage leads to building on risky grounds

farming- fertile silts, volcanic ash

climate change- global sea levels rising - more extreme weather

structures of the earth

inner core —> outer core —> mantle —> crust

features of the continental crust

older, less dense, 30-50m thick

features of oceanic crust

younger, denser, 5-10km thick

evidence for tectonic theory

• fossil records- animals separated by huge oceans- land must be together

• continents fit together

• mountain range used to connect geology seems to match

conservative plate boundaries

• when two plates move past eachother in same or opposite directions at different speeds

• friction between plates cause them to become stuck, stress builds released by seismic waves

• earthquakes

destructive plate boundaries

• when two plates move towards each other- oceanic and continental

• oceanic is subducted

• volcanos and earthquakes

collision plate boundaries

• when two continental plats head towards each other

• forming mountain ranges, no volcanoes because there is no magma

• earthquakes

conservative plate boundaries

• two plates moving away from each other

• gap between plates force magma to rise

• earthquakes, volcano

advantages of living close to places of tectonic hazards

• fertile land- volcanic ash has minerals for growing crops

• poverty- cheaper housing, geothermal energy

• lack of education- limited knowledge of the hazards

• job opportunities- tourism

• family links

• mining- sulphur

• geothermal energy

disadvatanges of living at areas at risk from tectonic hazards

• high injury and death risk

• possible loss of homes and livelihoods

• costs of rebuilding

what year was nepal lic- earthquake

2015

what year was chile hic- earthquake

2010

how is monitoring used in volcanoes

• seismometer- detect and record microquakes 

• tiltometers- monitor ground deformation as magma rises  

• instruments- monitor gas emissions and change in water chemistry 

how is monitoring used in earthquakes

generally occur without warning, network of seismometer monitor and record them 

how is monitoring systems used in tsunamis

monitor systems in pacific and Indian oceans use floating boys to detect are tsunamis following an earthquake

how is protection used in volcanoes

earth embankments have been used to successfully divert lave flows. Weirs and small dams control lahars

how is protection used in earthquakes

earthquake resistant buildings (aseismic) are designed to withstand earthquakes

how are protections used for tsunamis

sea walls can help defend against tsunami waves 

how is prediction used for volcanoes

due to monitoring we can now detect when we think eruptions could occur allowing accurate evacuations

how can prediction work for earthquakes

impossible to accurately predict, but can use past quakes to see where could be most at risk

how can planning work for volcanoes

hazard mapping shows areas most at risk, allowing these areas to create evacuation packs and evacuation routes  

how can planning work for earthquakes

shakemaps locate areas at least risk in areas of which we can locate high-value desserts

what direction to surface move

high to low pressure

why is the UK weather like this

• Cloudy and wet weather in the UK is because it is located 50-60 N and is close to where cold polar air from the north meets the warm subtropical air from the south.

• These surface winds from south-west usually bring warm and wet weather because of rising air cooling and condensing forming clouds and rain

why are deserts like this- GAM

Because most deserts are found about 30 N and S where sinking air means high pressure, little rain, hot day and cold night temperatures

why are tropical rainforest like this

because they are found at the equator

low pressure as sun is directly overhead

hot humid air rises, cools and condense causing heavy rain

how are tropical storms formed

-        Triggered by upward movement of evaporated air and moisture

-        Rising air draws huge quantities of evaporated water vapour from ocean surface which cools and condenses to form towering thunderstorm clouds

-        Condensation releases heat which powers the storm and draws yet more water vapour

-        Multiple localised thunderstorms coalesce to form a giant rotating storm

-        Coriolis forces spin the storm creating a cloud spiral

-        Prevailing winds drift the storm over the ocean- gathering energy

what is needed for a tropical storm to form

·         5-15 degrees north and south of the equator

·         Ocean temperatures above 27 degrees

·         Ocean 50 meters deep

·         Coriolis effect

·         Intense heat and humidity for air rising

why do tropical storms loose energy when they make landfall

because water is energy soruce

what is the structure of a tropical storm

Centre: eye- a column of rapidly sinking cool air- conditions are relativity calm with no clouds

Outer edge of eye: eye wall- conditions are very strong and torrential rain

Coulombs clouds- swirl around bringing additional bands of rain

why are tropical storms become more frequent

Climate change= temperature increase= sea temperatures rise= sea temp above 27c more= more tropical storms

monitoring and prediction for TS

Tropical storms cannot be prevented but can be monitored to predict tracks

Tracking includes satellite and radar.

This allows local governments to issue warnings and evacuations  

how is protection used for TS

Reinforcing wall, windows and roofs and building homes on stilts can help

Cyclone shelters can be used as community centres, schools for majority of time

how is planning used for TS

Creating contingency plans for evacuation routes

Educations and media campaigns to raise awareness of dangers

what is the greenhouse effect

Greenhouse effect keeps the naturally warm enough to support life on earth

-          Greenhouse gases trap heat that would otherwise escape atmosphere

-          Allows short wave radiation from sun to earth

-          Traps longer wavelength radiation (heat) that would be radiated back into atmosphere

what are the UK’s weather hazards

Thunderstorms

Prolonged rainfall à floods

Droughts and extreme heats

Heavy snow and extreme cold

Strong winds

short term evidence for climate change

extent of artic sea ice, glacial retreat, temperature records

how does extent of artic sea ice give evidence for CC

50% less sea ice then there was 30 years ago, sea temperatures appear to be getting warmer- with permeant ice covering decreasing 9% a decade. Extremely reliable

how does the rate of glacial retreat give evidence for CC

glaciers have been melting as temperatures increase. Extremely reliable

how do temperature records give evdience for climate change

since 1850’s been using thermometers to track temperature changes. Very reliable and accurate data

long term evidence for cliamte change

dendrochronology, ice cores, sediment cores

how is dendrochronology evidence for cliamte change

each tree ring represents a year of growth; thicker tree rings show warmer and wetter temperatures. They date back around 10,000 years, using modern data sets can be quite reliable

how are ice cores evidence for cliamte chagne

contain tiny bubbles of atmosphere within them. shows the evidence of amount of greenhouse gases present go back 1 million years, reliable

how are sediment cores used for climate change evidence

contain microfossils and pollen which can give indications of climate, can go back many millions of years but less reliable

what human causes are there for climate change

deforesation, fossil fules, agricutlure

how does deforestation cause climate change

occurs due to agriculture, urban areas and roads needing space, it stops the carbon oxygen exchange loosing carbon sinks

how does agriculture cause climate change

causes deforestation, cattle farming releases huge amounts of  methane, NPK fertilisers and pesticides have nitrous oxides within them- 300x more effective at trapping heat then CO2 

what natural causes are there for climate change

solar output, milankovitch cycles, volcanic activity

how does solar output cause climate change

sunspots are darker patches on the face of the sun, the more sunspots the more solar output- 11 year cycle from maximum to minimum

how do Milankovitch cycles cause climate change

the sun eccentrically orbits the earth. Every 100,000 years it moves from circular orbit into an oval elliptical orbit, it rotates on a tilted axis accounting for seasonal change. Precession the earth rotates as it wobbles causing climate changes

how does volcanic activity cause climate change

eruptions release  gas and large amounts of ash (short term) ash blocks the sun causing global dimming, sulphur dioxide is released and mixes with water in the atmosphere creating sulphuric acid= tiny mirrors reflecting the sun

how can we manage climate change

alternate energy sources, carbon capture, planting trees, international agreements

how can we use alternate energy sources to mange climate change

Such as hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar, w2ind and tidal are low carbon emission alternative to fossil fuels to create energy

how can we use carbon capture to manage climate change

technology to capture co2 that is produced by burning fossil fuels in electrical generation and industrial process. Once capture co2 is compressed and injected underground for storage in reservoirs- depleted oil and gas wells

how can we use tree planting to manage climate change

trees act as carbon sinks removing cos from atmosphere by photosynthesis. They also released moisture producing more clouds so reducing incoming solar radiations. Afforestation and reforestation can be implemented to create more land-based carbon sinks

how can international agreements manage climate change

Paris agreement in 2016 was first legally binding global climate deal aiming to limit global temperature increase to 1.5c above pre-industrial levels

how can we adapt to climate change

changing agricultural systems, manage water supply, reduce impact from sea level changes

how can we adapt to climate change through reducing impact from sea level change

-          Sea walls

-          Raised housing

-          Artificial islands

-          Resorting coastal mangroves

how can we adapt to climate change by changing agricultural systems

-          Cope with extreme weather

-          Manage water supply by storing water: irrigation systems, drought-resistant crops, adapt seasonally

how can we adapt to climate change through managing water supply

-          Constructing reservoirs to store water

-          Transferring water from areas of surplus to areas of deficit

-          Grey water (clean waste water)for irrigation

-          Constructing desalination plants to convert seawater to freshwater

-           Improving water conservation to reduce waste

what is an ecosystem

complex natural system made up of plants, animals and the environment- that are interdependent on each other

what are biotic feature of an ecosystem

living features of ecosystem- plants, animals and fish

what are abiotic features of ecosystems

non-living environmental factors - climate, soil, light

what are producers

convert energy from environment into sugars- plants covert energy from the sun by photosynthesis into glucose

what are consumers

get energy from sugars produced by producers- pond snail that eats plants

what are decomposers

break down plant and animal material returning the nutrients to the soil bacteria and fungi

what is the nutrient cycle

when plants or animals die, the decomposers help to recycle the nutrients, making them available once again for growth of plants and animals

what is a food chain

show the direct links between producers and consumers in the form of a simple line

what is a food web

shows all the connection between producers and consumers in a complex way

natural changes in an ecosystem

like droughts or other extreme weather- can kill parts of ecosystems and then animals dependent on them

what are human changes in an ecosystem

Agricultural fertilisers can lead to eutrophication as the nitrates increase growth of algae which depletes oxygen and fish may die

Hedgerows and grass margins protect wildlife such as bees, insects and wildflowers, when they are removed to increase size of grazing fields habitats will be destroyed

Ponds may be drained to use for farming aquatic plants will die and animals’ dependant on the aquatic life

why do biomes form parallel to lines of latitude

climate and characteristics of ecosystems are determined by the global atmospheric circulation

tropical rainforest- biome facts

cover 6% of land,

half of all plant and animal species

1/4 of world medicine

mainly close to equator- high temps and heavy rainfall

desert biome facts

1/5 of the earths land, high temps, less then 250mm rainfall, highly specialised species

Mediterranean biome facts

south of tropic of cancer, hot sunny and dry summers, mild winters- olives and citrus fruits

tundra biome facts

located 60-70 north- cold, windy and dry conditions support low-growing plants easily damaged by development- e.g. oil exploitation and tourism

location of tropical rainforests

located mostly a few degrees north and south of the equator

what climate do tropical forests thrive in

thrive in the equatorial climates where:

• Temperatures are high throughout the year- averaging 27c- because sun is mostly overhead

• Rainfall is over 2000m a year because GAC causes an area of low pressure to form at the Equator. The rising air creates clouds and triggers heavy rain

• Variation in rainfall is due to months where the equatorial low pressure area is directly overhead causing a distinct wet seasons of intense rainfall

latosols charecteristics in tropical rainforests

are typically old, deep, iron-rich so red in colour (minerals come from weathered rock below)

why are latosols in TF infertile

because they are prone to rapid leaching where minerals are lost in solution and nutrient cycling is rapid.

what is the nutrient cycling in TF

• the majority of nutrients are stored in the biomass- lush vegetation

• few nutrients are stored as litter. This is due to the rapid decomposition by fungi and bacteria

• few nutrients are stored in soil. This is due to the rapid uptake by plants and significant leaching

why have plants adapted in tropical rainforests

Through  stratification, tropical rainforest vegetation had adapted to cope with:

-          Competition for sunlight

-          Shortages of nutrients available

-          Competition for space

layers of trees in TF

Top canopy (35-50m)- Hardly exposed emergent trees with straight branchless trunks receive the most light

Middle canopy (20-35)- Most productive layer as each tree has enormous photosynthetic surface of dark leathery leaves. Dip tips- shed water quickly and efficiently

Lower tree canopy (10-20m)- Shaded less substantial trees waiting to take advantage of the next available light. Interlocking soundly branches, lianas

Shrub and ground layer (0-10m)- Limited to ferns and woody plants due to lack of light. Bacteria and fungi rapidly rot the fallen leaves, dead plants and animals. Thick buttress roots help to spread weight of the trees above

Latosols- cycle nutrients rapidly to support new growth, can be exposed to leaching and exhausted of stored nutrients

adaptions of plants in TF

Adaptation 1) trees grow upwards very quickly to reach sunlight, trunks tend to be straight and branchless as all energy is concentrated on growing taller

Adaptation 2) buttress roots-  base of the tree is wide and triangular to support it

Adaptation 3) shallow roots- because water and nutrients needed are upper layer of soil

Adaptation 4) flexible slim trunks to withstand winds in upper canopy

Adaptation 5) leaves in the emergent canopy have large surface areas to maximise sunlight absorption

Adaptation 6) canopy dense cover of leaves which absorbs  almost 70% of sunlight and 80% of rainfall

Adaptation 7) little undergrowth- less than 5% of sun’s rays reach this layer

Adaptation 8) dead trees rot quickly because of heat and water available. Adding nutrients to surface which are quickly used by other plants to grow

Adaptation 9) lianas use other trees to reach canopy/ sunlight because there is not as much light at ground level so need to in order to survive

Adaptation 10) drip tips which allow excess water to easily fall to the forest floor, prevents stem snapping due to water weight

Adaptation 11) leaves are waxy and thick to help them withstand strong sunlight and prevent water loss form surface of plant

how have animals adapted to living in rainforests

-          Poisonous- protect themselves from predators or to catch prey, some tribes use poisons on end of hunting arrows to help them hunt

-          Mimicry- pretend to be an animal they are not but look similar too in order to pretend to have their features (poisons etc)

-          Limiting diets- consume foods that only they can access- prevents lack of food- e.g. toucans only consume fruits that only they can access

-          Habitat adaptions- e.g. sloths have long arms and claws to live in treetops

-          Camouflage, enables creatures to blend into natural

-          Three-toed sloth has adapted to the hot conditions by having a very slow metabolism

sloth adaptions

• long arms and claws to live in treetops

• slow metabolisms for hot conditions

• algae on feet for nutrients and camouflage

why is biodiversty under threat in TF

-          Deforestation- replacing rainforests with pasture, commercial plantations and settlements

-          Water pollution- gold and other mining which is poisonous to river reduces aquatic life and kills wildlife

-          Climate change- deforestations reduces evapotranspiration causing climate drying

causes of deforestation

-          Logging- however selective logging is better than clear felling

-          Road building- provide access to logging and mining areas, new settlements and energy projects

-          Hydroelectric power- boosts Malaysia’s electricity supplies

-          Mineral extraction- tin mining is established and drilling for oil and gas

-          Settlement and population growth- people encouraged to move into the countryside- transmigration has set up new settlements

-          Commercial farming- largest exporters of palm oil in the world. Ten year tax incentives encourage more deforestation from plantations

-          Substance farming- short-term clearance is small scale and sustainable, but ‘slash and burn’ fire can grow out of control destroying large areas

impacts of deforestation- TF

Deforestation destroys the ecosystem and many habitats. Stripping away vegetation:

-          Reduces biodiversity

-          Losses of species, medicinal products

-          Exposes the ground- soil erosion by wind and rain

-          Contributes to climate change

development caused of deforesation

Economic gains:

-          Job creation

-          Tax revenue

-          Improved infrastructure

-          Plantation products support industries

-          HEP is cheap and plentiful

-          Minerals extraction

Economic issues:

-          Lack of water- limit supplies

-          Fires pollute and destroy vast areas of valuable forest

-          Rising temperatures

-          Medicinal plants could become extinct

-          Tourism could decrease

-          Climate change

value of tropical rainforests

Indigenous people living sustainably:

-          Around 50 million people living in the tropical rainforests

-          Rely on rainforest for food, water and shelter

-          Nomadic- hunter gatherers which is a sustainable lifestyle not farming the rainforest

Medicinal plants

-          25% of drugs used today are derived from rainforest plants:

o   Quinine- treat malaria

o   Extract from liana bark- treat Parkinson’s disease

o   Wild yams- birth control

o   Vampire bat- saliva prevents heart attacks

Resources:

-          Valuable hardwoods

-          Rich mineral resources

To the environment: biodiversity, carbon sinks, water, climate (20% of the world oxygen)

sustainable managing the rainforests

-          Selective logging and replanting- avoiding destructive clear felling

-          Conservation and education- promotes preservation

-          Ecotourism

-          International agreements

physical characteristics of deserts

Deserts are arid areas. Hot temperatures in the day, cold temperatures at night, less than 250mm rainfall per year.

Location: Found between 30N and 30S of equator

why is are the temperatures like this in a deserts

Found between 30N and 30S of equator at these latitudes air has risen from equator sinks forming a persistent belt of high pressure. Therefore, there is a lack of cloud and rain, and extreme temperature range- hot day, cold night.

characteristics of soil in deserts

Soil tends to be sandy or stony. There is limited leafy vegetation meaning little organic matter and fertility. Evaporation of moisture draws salt to surface

interdependence of animals in deserts

-          Animals adapt to store water, lose heat and seek shelter from the sun

o   E.g. rodents burrowing into the loose, sandy soil for shade

interdependence of plants in deserts

-          Plants seeds remain dormant for years, bursting into life when infrequent rainstorms finally arrive

interdependence of people in deserts

-          Traditional people are pastoralist, sustainably migrating with animals to fresh pastures water by seasonal rainfall, avoiding overgrazing

general plant adaptations in deserts

-          Small leaves, spined and waxy surface- reduce transpiration

-          Succulent store water in leaves, roots, stems or fruit

-          Seeds are dormant for years germinate quickly when it rains

-          Long taproots reach groundwater- rest are shallow roots to find water reaching surface to evaporate