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Versailles

→ Palace built by Louis XIV; symbol of absolute monarchy and centralized power in France.

Spanish Armada

→ Spanish fleet defeated by England in 1588; marked England’s rise as a naval power.

Intendants

→ Royal officials in France who enforced the king’s policies in the provinces.

Edict of Nantes

→ 1598 decree granting religious toleration to French Protestants (Huguenots).

Scientific Method

→ Systematic process of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and conclusion.

Thirty Years’ War

→ 1618–1648 European conflict over religion and power; devastated central Europe.

War of Spanish Succession

→ War over who would inherit the Spanish throne; limited French power in Europe.

Seven Years’ War

→ Global conflict over colonies and trade; Britain emerged dominant.

Czar (Tsar)

→ Title for Russian emperor with absolute authority.

St. Petersburg

→ Russian city built by Peter the Great to westernize Russia.

The Restoration

→ Return of the English monarchy in 1660 after Cromwell’s rule.

English Civil War

→ Conflict between Parliament and King Charles I over power and authority.

Absolute Monarchy

→ Government where the ruler holds total power.

Constitutional Monarchy

→ Monarchy limited by laws or a constitution.

Declaration of Independence

→ 1776 document declaring American independence and listing grievances against Britain.

Heliocentric Theory

→ Theory that the Earth revolves around the sun.

Geocentric Theory

→ Theory that the Earth is the center of the universe.

Philosophes

→ Enlightenment thinkers who promoted reason, science, and progress.

Bill of Rights (England & U.S.)

→ Laws protecting individual rights and limiting government power.

Divine Right

→ Belief that monarchs rule by God’s authority.

Scientific Revolution

→ Period of major scientific discoveries using observation and experimentation.

The Enlightenment

→ Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, natural rights, and progress.

Social Contract

→ Idea that governments exist to protect people’s rights and derive power from consent.

Philip II