SOC120 Midterm 1

objectivity

drawing conclusions from data regardless of personal opinions, beliefs, or values

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

positive statement

descriptive, factual statement which describes the world as it is; can be empirically tested

normative statement

statement which describes how the world should be; cannot be checked empirically

science

a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximal objectivity and consistency

qualities of a good scientific statement

1. reproducibility

2. intersubjectivity

3. falsifiability

4. impersonality

reproducibility

can other researchers replicate the exact same results by following the same methodology under the same conditions?

intersubjectivity

is the statement grounded in observations that can be perceived and agreed upon by multiple independent observers?

falsifiability

is there an inherent, logical way to prove the statement wrong through empirical observation or experimentation?

impersonality

is the statement true regardless of the biases, feelings, beliefs, or identity of the person making it?

quantitative data collection

systematic process of gathering measurable, numerical data that can be analyzed using empirical methods

random sample survey

research method where a smaller group of people is randomly selected from a larger population, giving every person an equal and known chance of being selected

sample-selection bias

bias introduced by systematically excluding some members of the population according to a particular attribute

standardized questionnaires

fixed-choice surveys that only allow a fixed range of responses; are easy to compare but offer little opportunity for deeper understanding and are constrained by standardized answer options.

qualitative data collection

systematic gathering of non-numerical information—such as words, actions, and open-ended descriptions from small samples; provide detailed understanding but not representative of larger population

functionalist approach

views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability, balance, and social order

"How do given features of family structure and practices contribute to the functioning of a society?

conflict theory approach

views society as a constant struggle for limited resources, power, and status

"How do given features of family structure and practices reflect power differentials and/or serve to perpetuate them?"

exchange theory approach

views human interactions as a series of cost-benefit calculations where people try to maximize rewards and minimize punishments

"How do family structures and behavior reflect the self-interested choices of individuals?"

symbolic interactionism approach

views the way people act toward things (words, gestures, objects) as based on the subjective meaning those things hold for them

"How do people make sense of each other and their situation through interaction?"

feminist perspective approach

views society as a system marked by power imbalances and competition for resources, specifically centered around gender

"How do women experience family life, and how does their experience differ from men's experience?"

private family

two or more individuals who maintain a close, intimate relationship and a durable commitment to each other

main function of the private family

providing love, intimacy, and emotional support

challenge of the private family

boundary ambiguity

boundary ambiguity

a state in which family members are uncertain about who is in or out of the family

public family

one or more adults who are jointly caring for dependents, and the dependents themselves

main function of the public family

raising the next generation, caring for the elderly, ill, and disabled

challenge of the public family

free rider problem

free rider problem

individuals enjoy the social and economic benefits of raised children without contributing to the heavy costs of raising them

externalites

costs and benefits accruing to parties not directly involved in a transaction

public goods

goods that can be enjoyed or consumed by everybody without having to pay for their production

homogramy

the tendency of individuals to marry or form long-term unions with people who share similar social, cultural, demographic, or socioeconomic characteristics

consequences of homogamy

can reinforce existing social stratification and the intergenerational persistence of wealth and advantage, as similar people tend to partner and pool resources

sex

biological features that distinguish males from females; fixed

gender

the social articulation, amplification, and creation of sex differences

gender as personal identity

• formed in preschool years, then reinforced

• central part of self-description

• highly (but not universally) stable

gender as "role" behavior

• many behaviors are gendered

• e.g., fashion, household division of labor, labor force participation, "gender-appropriate" behaviors, sports, childcare

roles

socially determined expectations of how individuals should behave in a specific position

rigidity of gender roles

• gender role behavior is often sharply and rigidly differentiated within societies at a given point in time

• often rigidly enforced; rule-breaking is punished

flexibility of gender roles

gender role behaviors are variable across cultures, over time, and within cultures

biosocial perspective on gender

views gender identity and behavior as the result of a continuous interaction between innate biological factors and environmental or social influences

role of biology in gender

chromosomal sex, gestational sex hormones; only explains about 1/4 of the variation in certain gendered behaviors

social construction of gender

gender roles exist (in part) because people agree that they exist and then support their existence

role of socialization in gender

• the lifelong process by which individuals learn and internalize cultural expectations, behaviors, and roles associated with their assigned gender

• transmitted through parents, school, peer groups, and mass media

social and economic constraints of gender

gender roles encode and reinforce economic inequality and power differentials between men and women

"doing" gender

gender is an ongoing performance that people actively enact through everyday social interactions

lineage

a group of people tied by descent

patrilineal

based on or tracing descent through the male line

matrillineal

based on or tracing descent through the female line

bilineal

based on or tracing descent through both the male and female lines

locality

where a couple settles after marriage

patriolocality

when the newly married couple lives with the husband's family

matriolocality

when the newly married couple lives with the wife's family

neolocality

when the newly married couple establishes a new, independent household

Minangkabau (Indonesia)

• matrilineal society

• kinship and inheritance flow in the female line

• women own ancestral land, men own land for cash crops, men occupy most religious and political leadership positions

Hopi (Arizona)

• matrilineal society

• kinship and inheritance flow in the female line

• women own the land, but men work it

• maternal uncles approve nephew's marital choice

role of maternal uncles in matrilineal societies

serves as the primary male authority figure, disciplinarian, and provider, often taking on roles that fathers hold in patrilineal families

extended household

kinship group comprised of a married couple, their children, and other relatives that live in the same household (e.g. parents, siblings)

monogamy

marriage to a single mate

polygamy

marriage to several people at the same time

polygyny

marriage to multiple wives at the same time; usually reserved for the wealthy

polyandry

marriage to multiple husbands at the same time

The Na (China)

• matrilocal society

• multiple "secret" sexual partners

• idiosyncratic theory of procreation

• no concept of biological fatherhood

• maternal uncles act as father figures

lessons of the Na

1. There are endless variations of possible family structures

2. Social consequences of family structure depend on how the system of kinship is designed.

characteristics of the early European family

1. small families

2. monogamous relationships

3. bilateral kinship and inheritance

4. later marriage

Constantine Conversion (312 AD)

beginning of the radical changes to family law by the Church

Christian innovations

1. new category of kinship (godkin)

2. prohibited marriage to close kin (blood-related, affinal, godkin)

3. discouraged divorce

4. strictly prohibited remarriage

5. prohibited adoption

6. chastity preferred over marriage

consequences of Christian innovations (general)

1. limited strategies of heirship

2. rise of monasteries

3. massive diversion of familial wealth to the Church

consequences of Christian innovations (for women)

1. some liberation from patrilineage (increasingly officiated marriages, demphasized parental consent)

2. no pressure to remarry after husband's death

Protestant Reformation (1517-1648)

religious and political movement in Europe that split Western Christianity into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism

effects of the Protestant Reformation

1. loosened restrictions on marriage and remarriage

2. marriage preferred over chastity

English Reformation (1534-1603)

religious and political movement where the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Churc

effects of the English Reformation

1. established the independent Church of England (Anglican Church)

2. transferred religious and legal power from Rome to the English monarch and Parliament

3. shifted worship practices to use English instead of Latin

aftereffects of the Christian Revolution and Reformations

• no systemic weakening of ecclesiastical courts in matters of marriage & family until 19th century

• adoption remained forbidden until 19th (U.S.) and 20th centuries (Europe)

GDP per capita in the U.S.

on average, Americans are getting wealthier, but this growth is not shared equally

unemployment rate in the U.S.

highest unemployment rate during great depression; has remained relatively stable since, fluctuating with recession and inflation

reasons for rising inequality between households

1. growing inequalities in male earnings (decline of manufacturing sector)

2. changing household composition (increase in 1-person households)

3. movement of middle-class wives into labor force

absolute poverty

when a household's total income falls below a fixed federal poverty threshold required to meet basic life needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter

• threshold is based on the cost of a minimum food diet x 3 (adjusted for inflation)

  • single-person household ~$16,000/year

  • family of four ~$33,000/year

poverty rates in 2025

• overall: 10.2%

• children (<18): 13.4%

• working age: (18-65): 9.2%

• elderly (65+): 9.8%

class

• economic position in society

• based on income, wealth, property ownership, and jobs

• objective and measurable through numbers like bank accounts or pay

“How are economic resources distributed across families?”

status

• social standing and the respect you receive from others

• based on prestige, honor, culture, and community regard

• subjective and based on how society values lifestyle or role

“How do family structure and behavior differ by education?”

income distribution in the U.S.

• median annual household income (2025): $87,000

• top 20% of households earn 52% of income

• bottom 50% of households earn 12% of income

• income inequality between families has grown since early 1970s

education distribution in the U.S.

of all Americans aged 25 and older:

• 15% had an advanced degree (master’s or doctorate)

• 24% had a bachelor’s degree

• 52% had a high school diploma

• 9% did not have a high school diploma

effect of education on marriage

college graduates are more likely to marry, but have a higher median age at marriage

effect of education on divorce

• less educated have a higher divorce rate

• divorce rate increased for all education groups until 1980

• rate for college-educated women declined since 1980

• rate continues to increase for less educated

effects of education on fertility

• college graduates are more likely to postpone having children, but won’t have them until after marriage

• less educated will postpone marriage, but have children outside of wedlock

  • largest increase in unmarried parenthood amongst less educated

race

• grouping people by physical traits like hair texture and facial features (phenotypical presentation)

• treated as a social and political category by government rather than a biological fact

ethnicity

• grouping people by a shared culture, history, language, religion, or ancestral region

• usually based on where a person's family or ancestors originated

“doing race”

• race is an active, ongoing social process performed and negotiated through everyday interactions, rather than a fixed biological fact

• e.g. using terms that amplify racial differences (Black and White)

race as a social construct

• differs between time and cultures

• no true biological defining features

• influenced by personal identity, self-classification, social inequality, and power

one-drop rule

legal principle from 1910-1967; any person with even a single ancestor of African ancestry was classified as Black

hypodescent

social and legal practice of classifying a mixed-race person as a member of the socially inferior or lower-class racial group; ideology of the U.S.

hyperdescent

social and legal practice of classifying a mixed-race person as a member of the socially dominant or higher-status racial group; ideology of Latin America,

median age at marriage (Black vs White)

Black: 31 (W) & 32 (M)

White 28 (W) & 29 (M)

probability of marriage (Black vs White women)

Black: ~75%

White: ~90%

non-maritial births (Black vs White children)

Black: ~70%

White: ~35%

single-parent households (Black vs White)

Black: ~50%

White: ~20%

differences between Black and White familes

• later marriage

• lower overall marriage probability

• more births out of wedlock

• more single-parent households

• more extended family households

extended households (Black vs White)

• Black Americans are more likely to live in extended households across income groups

• White Americans are less likely to live in extended households as income increases

13th Amendment (1865)

abolished slavery and involuntary servitude across the nation, except as a punishment for a convicted crime

Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)

The U.S. Supreme Court case that ruled Black people (enslaved or free) were not U.S. citizens