Psychology 2 Exam

Learning

change in behavior because of experience

Memory

acquire/store/retrieve knowledge

Types of Learning

• Non-associative

• Associative

• Social

Associative

• learning relationship between 2 stimuli/events

  • classical conditioning

    • stimulus in environment elicits behavior & association

    • reflexive

Social

• instruction/observational

Conditional response/stimulus

• response TO stimulus

• training to react to a ring/tone

  • Dwight altoid example

Extinction

Weakening of conditioned response (CR) in absence of unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance of extinguished conditioned response after time delay

Generalization

produce CR to a stimulus that is SIMILAR to original CS

Discrimination

learning to distinguish between stimuli that are similar to original CS

Applications of Classical Conditions

• conditioned food aversions

• avoid food w/ certain attributes after SINGLE ill experience

Introspection

reflect on experience

• structuralism

• functionalism

Operant Conditioning

consequences of behavior

• reward/punish, behavior increases/decreases

B.F Skinner: Radical Behaviorism

most powerful influence on behavior is consequence/reinforcement

Reinforcement

intentional consequence to action that STRENGTHEN action/behavior

Punishment

consequence WEAKENS behavior

Positive Reinforcement

pleasant stimulus, increases probability again

Negative Reinforcement

removal of unpleasant stimulus to increase probability

Positive Punishment

add unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

Negative Punishment

removal of pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

Reinforcement Schedules

• continuous

• shaping

Continuous Reinforcement

• every instance reinforce

Shaping Reinforcement

• steps of behavior lead up to what you want

— produces fast learning but quick extinction

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

• some instances in behavior, not all

  • new learning is slower but harder to extinguish

  • ratio/internal, fixed/variable

    • ex: tantrums likely to reoccur if they get what they want

Ratio Number of Required Behavior

• fixed: after certain #, receive reward

• variable: unpredictable # gets reward

Interval, Time-Based

• fixed: getting reward per hour

• variable: unpredictable amount of time

Punishment

must be REASONABLE, unpleasant, and immediate

reinforce desire

Classical

BEFORE behavior (CS, UCS)

• narrow in focus

• reflexive behavior

Operant

AFTER behavior

• consequence and repetition

• ANY behavior, more applications

John Garcia Studies

biological preparedness

Evolutionary History

• some learning easier than others

• natural connection w/ tasting something new and getting nauseous

Biological Preparedness

• animals are genetically prepared to learn specific fears

• may not be automatic, but easily learned

Cognitive Maps

mental image/representation used to navigate familiar environment

Latent Learning

learning occurs w/o reinforcement or indication that learning took place

Insight Learning

problem solving occurs by suddenly perceiving new forms/relationships

Cognitive & Behavioral Explanations

complementary

Social Observational Learning

new responses after watching others behavior (modeling)

Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment

consequences of behavior w/o experiencing consequences themselves

Fragile Power of Memory

Franco Maynani / William O.

• intrusive recollections

Memory

information processing system, encode/store/receive info & experience

• introspective/retrospective

• reconstruct past

Explicit Memory

• conscious awareness

Implicit Memory

• not aware, procedural memory, about HOW we do things

  • (motor/cognitive)

Memory, 3 Basic Functions

• encoding

• storage

• retrieval

Encoding

• register experience/info in the mind

Retrieval

• locating/recovering info

  • not easily accessible

Recall

pulling out info

Recognition

like MCQ, easier than recalling exact

Relearning

retention retained after learning information, retention intervals

Relearning Savings

not as long as initial memorization

Savings Curve

forgetting curve

• measure amount remembered

How Do We Form Memories?

• sensory

• short-term

• long-term

Short-Term

• working memory, (20-40 secs)

• unrehearsed is lost

Long-Term

• some info lost overtime

Central Executive

holding onto words, meanings, any formulas, searching for answer

• 7 (+/-2) max capacity for memory

• info stored for 20 seconds, rehearsal needs longer

Sensory Memory

all senses have

• iconic (visual)

• echoic (auditory)

Working Memory

recently perceived events for less than a minute

Maintenance Rehearsal

information repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

Chunking

organizing pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units

Long-Term Memory

• stored in different formats

Effortful Processing

rehearsal in which info is actively reviewed & related to info already in long-term memory (LTM)

• cannot happen w/o attention

Levels of Processing Theory

info that is more throughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered

• form associations

Implicit Memory

no conscious awareness

Priming

enhanced identification of objects/words

• activation (outside conscious awareness) of associations that predispose our perception/memory/behavior response

Procedural Memory

• motor skills

Cerebellum

• implicit/classical condition

Amygdala

• emotion processing

Basal Ganglia

procedural

Sematic Memory

EXPLICIT

• general knowledge

Episodic Memory

EXPLICIT

• personally experienced events

Frontal & Hippocampus

EXPLICIT

• longterm

Consolidation

neural storage of long-term memory

• sleep is important

1) NREM 2

• temporary flash drive of memory forms during sleep spindles—transferring memories

2) NREM 3

• replay and consolidation of long-term explicit memories

3) REM

• memory consolidation & integration of new LT explicit memories w/ older & general knowledge   

Storage Errors

“decay” of memory overtime

Retrieval Errors

• blocking

• retrograde amnesia

• motivated forgetting & directed forgetting

• interference

Source Amnesia

umbrella term, errors of reality monitoring (really happened v imagined)

Source Monitoring

• determine source of an event/memory from what actually occurred

Reality Monitoring

attempt to distinguish between memories for events that actually occurred v. memory of imagined

Imagined Inflation

imagining an event “inflated” our confidence that it actually happened

Source Monitoring

determine source of event, including reality monitoring

Source Amnesia

memory exists, can’t recall origin

Misinformation/Disinformation

exposing ppl to misleading post-event info

Source Misattribution

memory for experienced event is retrieved but associated w/wrong time, place, person

• Donald Thomson SA

Judgement & Decision Making

heuristic & analytic

Heuristics

natural (implicit unconscious) but consequential

Availibility Heuristic

cognitive shortcuts, simplify processing

• estimating likelihood of an event by how easily it comes to mind

• easy to over/underestimate

  • ex: are there more dogs or pigs on leashes?

Representative Heuristic

judging likelihood of some instance by extent to which is matched a prototype (or stereotype) stored in memory

• judging something by how “representative” it is of a given catagory

  • ex: gamblers fallacy

  • important to expose yourself to diff groups of ppl

Framing

the way choices are presented to sway judgements

• info can be presented in more than 1 way

• loss aversion: feel losses more than comparable gain

Nudges (Framing Effect)

framing choices that encourage ppl to make beneficial decisions

• opt in v opt out

Anchoring & Adjusting

• under uncertainty (price/value), default to an anchor as a benchmark or initial estimate

• if we feel anchor isn’t accurate as estimate, we adjust our estimated in the direction we think appropriate (higher/lower)

  • anchor has more influence than we realize

    • “Tipflation”

Confirmation Bias

seek & prefer info that is consistent w/what we believe & avoid contradictory evidence

• mental shortcut for gathering & interpreting info

• evaluating evidence takes time

• narrows scopes of our thoughts