EVR3218 Wildlife Research Techniques Module 3 Quiz

Define “market hunting” or “commercial hunting” (and trapping)

Involves harvest of wildlife for economic or trade purposes. In most cases, these practices are illegal or in some places unregulated

Define “subsistence hunting” (and trapping). Where is this most common and when is it harmful?

Involves harvest of wildlife for food (or other purposes) for meeting individual or household needs. More common in underdeveloped regions. In times of famine or poverty, it can cause populations decline as people harvest anything they can find which can decimate native wildlife.

Define “sport hunting” or “recreational hunting”

Harvest of wildlife for recreational purposes, although often the meat or other parts are used some way. Thoroughly regulated in North America and other developed countries.

Which of the three types of hunting has not caused any extinctions and why?

Sport hunting, because there is minimal economic incentive to overhunt as people pay to participate and there is disincentive to overhunt as reduced populations reduce future recreation and harvest opportunities. During low population sizes, hunters won’t hunt because of the low success rate or hunting seasons will be closed for population recovery

In North America, wildlife management has a large focus on [term]:[definition]?

Harvest management: managing wildlife harvests to regulate wildlife populations

What is the basic CONCEPT of game management? How is wildlife viewed as a resource?

The idea of surplus. Wildlife are a renewable resource, and sport hunting (or trapping) should be regulated so that only surplus individuals are harvested. In other words, hunting mortality should be compensatory and only take individuals that might otherwise die from starvation, disease, predation, accidents, and other causes

Define “carrying capacity.”

What is it abbreviated as?

How is it applied in harvest management (under game management)?

It defines the maximum number of individuals an area can support without damaging the habitat, such as damage to trees by over-browsing.

Abbreviated as K.

The general idea with harvest management is to keep populations above some ideal breeding stock size to avoid population declines and below carrying capacity to avoid overpopulation

When might sport hunting be additive instead of compensatory?

Where overpopulation exists, so the goal of the harvest is to reduce breeding stock by causing additive mortality. While difficult to achieve, this graph depicts a successful scenario where the combination of hunting and other mortality reduces the effective populations size

How do safe harvests make causing additive mortality through sport hunting difficult? What are some species with safe takes up to 70%? What about slower reproducing species; what are their harvests and what are they dependent on?

It’s hard for sport hunting to cause additive mortality because the rates can be high for safe harvests. For cottontail rabbits, squirrels, and foxes, safe takes can be up to 70%. For turkey and deer, since they are slow reproducing, the safe take is 20-40% depending on the sex ratio and if you want to reduce the population

What are the 3 types of harvests that can occur within the margin of error?

1. Regulated harvests: hunters take more than expected

2. Depredation harvests: animals are taken to prevent damage to crops or other resources

3. Poaching or illegal harvests: we try to prevent these but cannot completely eliminate them

Who makes wildlife regulations for migratory vs non-migratory species?

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) makes laws for migratory species, which can be driven by international agreements.

State agencies make regulations for non-migratory species (in FL, it’s the FL Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission)

What are the 11 types of wildlife regulations?

1. Species (some game, some non-game/protected, some are pest species with unregulated harvest allowed)

2. Sex (More males harvested to conserve breeding stock, more females harvested to reduce overpopulation)

3. Timing of hunting season (determined by age structure, young must be nearly full grown)

4. Season length (most taken on first few days of hunting season)

5. Start day of season (day of week important: weekends have bigger harvest, for a smaller harvest first day will be midweek)

6. Bag limits (max # an individual can harvest per day or per season)

7. Geographical zones (geographical restrictions within a state as areas with more wildlife allow greater harvests)

8. Concern for landowners (hunting may be prohibited on sundays to give rest to landowners such as farmers)

9. Licenses (regular permits; special permits for deer, alligator, turkey permits; duck stamps; hunter safety training)

10. Tactics (weapon, bait, decoys, calling, blinds, stands, etc. Certain tactics can be made illegal)

11. Equipment (encourage a fair and challenging hunt to optimize recreation. Restrictions on equipment, weapons, and gear)

What are the types of trapping?

1. Live traps (commonly called box or cage traps; animal walks inside to get a bait and is trapped)

2. Foot-hold traps (NOT leghold traps. Designed to catch by the pad of the food and are not toothed)(does not break skin and causes no injuries when used properly)(prohibited in FL)

3. Body-gripping traps (sometimes called kill traps or conibear traps; crush the body when an animal enters)(often placed in water so pet capture is rare)(prohibited in FL)

4. Snares (animal is caught in the loop around the neck so they suffocate)

What are the advantages and disadvantages of live trapping?

Advantages: non-target animals can be released

Disadvantages: It’s hard to get many animals to enter, can cause capture myopathy which is severe stress caused by capture, they’re bulky and hard to carry in the field

How have foot-hold traps been made less painful?

Offset jaws, padded jaws; can also adjust tension of springs to reduce pain

What are the advantages and disadvantages of food-hold traps?

Advantages: We can usually release non-target animals unharmed, capture myopathy is less severe, and they are easy to transport

Disadvantages: Potentially dangerous and inhumane in the hands of the careless or inexperienced, mistakes occur especially with non-target animals, cause a measure of stress or suffering

What are the advantages and disadvantages of body-gripping traps?

Advantages: Cause minimal suffering because death is instant or very quick, easy to transport

Disadvantages: no release of non-target animals

What are the advantages and disadvantages of snares?

Advantages: relatively cheap, lightweight, easy to carry, easy to set, if minimum size is set non-target animals can sometimes be released

Disadvantages: public perception of snares is better than footholds and body-gripping traps, arguably less humane since they cause more suffering

How are trapping regulations similar and different from hunting regulations?

They are similar to hunting except that all traps, regardless of kind, must be checked daily

What are the 10 benefits of recreational hunting and trapping?

1. Provides majority of funding for wildlife; hunters and trappers fund most wildlife management

2. Provides opportunities for outdoor recreation

3. Economic value; supports local hunting shops, shooting ranges, taxidermists, meat cutters, etc.

4. Cheap way to reduce livestock and crop losses; reduce collisions with vehicles

5. Reduces starvation, disease, overpopulation, and habitat decline

6. Keeps potentially dangerous wildlife wary of humans (e.g. bears, cougar)

7. Provides valuable date for wildlife management and ecology (e.g. wildlife agencies collect info at deer check stations)

8. Provides lean meat, furs, and hides

9. Allows wildlife managers to control populations and is a cheap and effective way to do it, important for damage control and control of overpopulated and nuisance species

10. Provides a means of cultivated Leopold’s land ethic; it facilitates family traditions and promotes wildlife conservation

What are the 7 negatives of sport hunting and trapping?

1. ‘Slob’ hunters- trespassing, vandalism, trash; ignorance of wildlife, ecology, misuse of traps/weapons; drunken behavior; poaching; etc.

2. Hunters can monopolize the outdoors at times, especially public hunting areas

3. Sportsmen can negative impact habitat (e.g. tree steps drilled into trunks; using vegetation to make a blind), usually a minor problem

4. Wounding of wildlife- wildlife, if healthy, will often recover form minor injuries; but not ideal; can cause crippling or ‘undue suffering'

5. Trophy hunting may remove most ‘fit’ from a population

6. Accidents, sometimes fatal, do occur

7. Animal rights argument: immoral to kill wildlife for fun and recreation or for any reason

Define “limiting factor”

What does it include?

Some agent or combination of agents that keep a wildlife population from expanding.

Includes food, cover, water, soils, space, predation, disease, hunting and trapping

Define “habitat”

The types of places that contain a combination of abiotic attributes, conditions, and processes that support the survival or reproduction of a species, including any unoccupied areas made usable by restoration, management, or natural processes that enable the species to persist through emerging threats and changing environmental conditions

What are the two types of functions a limiting factor can be?

1. Function of habitat: foot, water, cover, soil, space

2. Function of environmental processes: predation, disease, injuries, hunting, trapping

What are the two types of limiting factors?

Direct (mortality) and indirect (suppress reproduction)

What are the three dietary classifications?

1. Carnivores (eat animal tissue)

2. Herbivores (eat plant tissue)

3. Omnivores (eat a mix of plant and animal tissue)

What are the 9 types of carnivores?

1. Flesh-eaters

2. Scavengers

3. Insectivores

4. Vermivores (dig for worms)

5. Avivores (land-based birds//reptiles who eat other birds)

6. Ovivores (raid nests/ground for eggs)

7. Piscivores (land-based animal who hunts fish in freshwater)

8. Hematophages (land parasites, feed on blood of land hosts)

9. Molluscivores (land/semi-aquatic animals, target land snails or freshwater bivalves)

What are the 7 types of herbivores?

1. Grazers (grass)

2. Browsers (leaves, twigs)

3. Frugivores (fruit)

4. Granivores (grain/seed)

5. Folivores (mature foliage that’s high in fiber and hard to digest)

6. Gummivores (tree sap, gum, and resin)

7. Nectarivores (flower nectar; have elongated beaks or blush-tipped tongues)

*Note: Many species can be multiple types of feeds/exist on a feeding continuum

What are the two patterns of wildlife-food relationships?

What does each need for food?

Carnivore/predators vs Herbivores

1. Predators: meat is a complete food if they can choose the parts; often starve but are rarely malnourished. Often consume nutrient-rich organs first, especially if competing for a carcass with others

2. Herbivores: need a variety of plants to meet needs; often malnourished unless they occupy a diverse-enough habitat. Rarely starve except under extreme conditions

What are the 7 critical times where food is the most limiting factor?

1. Pinch period: time of year when food is scarce. Fat reserves must be built prior to the pinch period

2. Courtship and mating: males expend more energy on courtship and eat little. Malnourished males may not breed

3. Gestation and egg laying: females must approach breeding season in excellent condition or else they won’t have the energy/nutrient stores to produce young

4. Lactation and incubation: Most stressful time for females, may lose weight, ideally times with growth of vegetation and prey abundance

5. Growth: inadequate nutrition causes stunting, reduced survival, and delayed/minimal reproduction

6. Hibernation: prior to hibernation if relevant to ensure survival during dormancy

7. Migration: requires more energy. Need fat stores, if underweight likely to die. For migratory birds, adequate stopover habits can be crucial for populations

What are the two main ways to detect food as a limiting factor?

1. Reproduction: best indicator. Look for signs of arrested or deferred breeding, longer intervals between attempts, decrease in fertility, embryo counts, etc.

2. Body measurements: used as a substitute measure. Look at weight/age, longbone length, % fat in marrow, fat indices, and other species specific measurements (e.g. antler development)

Define “cover”

Shelter or protection from predators, weather, people, or threats

What are 7 reasons why wildlife needs cover?

1. Loafing (rest, different from roosting)

2. Roosting or sleeping

3. Emergency (weather/natural disasters)

4. Travel lanes

5. Escape

6. Reproduction

7. Foraging

Define “succession” in terms of successional stages.

How can it be a limiting factor?

A directional, predictable change in community structure over time. Lack of early successional habitat can limit reproduction of some species. Species can favor more than 1 stage.

What are three ways cover can be a limiting factor?

1. Lack of thermal cover

2. Lack of escape cover

3. Lek availability (breeding display signs, lack will decrease reproduction)

What are the 5 things that happen when cover is scarce?

1. Predation increases

2. Nesting and denning opportunities decrease

3. Animals experience an increase in exposure to weather extremes

4. Stress and energy expenditure increase

5. Population size decreases even if food is abundant

What are the 7 things wildlife need water for?

1. Cellular function ( cells 60-90% water, water dissolves nutrients)

2. Transport of materials (blood, lymph, body fluids transport hormones, nutrients, etc.)

3. Temperature regulation (sweating, water bodies for cooling)

4. Digestion and metabolism (metabolic reactions consume or produce water, food cannot be effectively processed without adequate hydration)

5. Waste removal (urine, sweat, feces, gills)

6. Maintaining body structure (blood volume and cell shape)

7. Reproduction and development (lay eggs in water, embryonic development relies on water)

What are the 5 types of water sources?

1. Open water

2. Milk (if a young mammal)

3. Dew drops

4. Succulent plants

5. Seawater (for species who can filter salt out)

What are the four major taxa we use to differentiate between water needs?

Birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians

What two major taxa evolved to conserve water and excrete uric acid?

Birds and reptiles

Which major taxa uses porous skin to intake water and oxygen?

Amphibians

For which major taxa are water sources important for predators and why?

Mammals because predators don’t obtain water from succulent vegetation

What are the 6 situations when water can be a limiting factor?

1. Extreme drought

2. Wetland drainage

3. Dam construction

4. River channelization

5. Oil spills/pollution

6. Anthropogenic-driven scarcity from over-withdrawals of surface or groundwater supplies

What are the 5 consequences of water scarcity?

1. Animals may die directly from dehydration

2. Food availability decreases because plants and prey decline

3. Reproduction declines as animals conserve energy

4. Animals concentrate near water sources which leads to an increase in competition, predation, and disease transmission

5. Species distributions change with animals moving or disappearing from dry areas over the long term

What are the four ways that soil affects the distribution and abundance of wildlife?

1. Controls Wildlife Health via vegetation: Fertile soil produces nutritious vegetation which produces healthy wildlife

2. Provides minerals and nutrients itself if consumed (geophagy is feeding on soils to obtain nutrients or grit for the crops of birds)

3. Fossorial species habitat: soil conditions are key for species that live in soil as it must permit burrowing

4. Nesting: soils can be used to make nests (e.g. cliff swallows make nests of mud)

What are the 5 patterns of wildlife populations in areas with fertile soils?

1. Larger

2. More productive

3. Achieve higher quality (more healthy individuals)

4. Greater biodiversity

5. Respond better to management practices

What are 7 threats to soil which threatens wildlife?

1. Erosion

2. Compaction

3. Salinization (accumulation of water-soluble salts from improper fertilizer application and increased sea level and evaporation rates. affects plant production via nitrogen uptake)

4. Desertification (vegetation decreases and disappears. can be human caused by overgrazing, unsustainable farming, urbanization, or deforestation, accelerated by climate change)

5. Landslides

6. Pollution

7. Removal (such as peat, top soil, or fill dirt)

Define “habitat quality”

The resources and conditions present in an area that are capable of supporting a particular organism (including survival and reproductive needs)

Define “space”

When is it a limiting factor?

Includes the composition, size, and configuration of habitats

If any factors are lacking, space can be a limiting factor

Define “habitat composition”

How is it expressed?

When is it a limiting factor?

Describes which habitat types are either used or preferred by a species in a particular area.

Can be expressed via a list of occupied types present or as a % or portion.

When a preferred habitat is lacking in amount or unavailable, habitat composition can be a limiting factor

What are 5 examples of species with specific habitat compositions?

1. Ring-necked pheasants

2. FL Black bear

3. Burrowing owl

4. Safe grouse

5. Eastern common crane

How can habitat size be a limiting factor?

A lack of space creates limited resources and increases competition

Define “home range”

What must it contain?

Describes the area an individual animal occupies during typical daily activities. Must contain the animal’s required cover types

Define “territory”

What are the two ways territorial species can exist?

Any part of an individual’s home range (some or all) that is defended. Not all species are territorial.

Defence of territory can be aggressive or territories can overlap with one another

What is a “minimum area requirement?”

What 3 things does it depend on?

The amount of suitable habitat required for long-term persistence of a species.

Depends on:

1. Habitat quality

2. Home range and territory sizes

3. Demographics

What are the 3 components of habitat configuration?

1. Juxtaposition/arrangement

2. Shape

3. Interspersion (falls under arrangement)

What 3 terms is arrangement described in?

1. Proximity: how close two habitats are to one another

2. Connectivity: the degree that species can move impeded across habitats (often improved with wildlife crossing bridges)

3. Interspersion: the mixing of habitats across space

Define “shape” in terms of habitat configuration

The geometry of the habitat patches (edgy or compact)

Define “arrangement” in terms of habitat configuration

How different habitat types or successional stages are arranged or places with respect to one another

Define “habitat loss”

Conversion of one habitat to another

Define “habitat fragmentation”

Process of transforming a large expanse of habitat into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area

What are the two patterns of habitat shape?

1. Edgy or complex habitat patches

2. Compact habitat patches

Edgy or complex habitat patches occur in highly fragmented landscapes. What 4 things do they tend to have?

1. More species total, including invasive

2. Higher ET rates

3. Higher predation rates

4. Higher levels of sub-population isolation

Compact habitat patches are generally large. What 4 things do they tend to have?

1. Permit more successful species movement

2. More rare and area-sensitive species

3. Decreased predation rates

4. Increased capacity for storm water runoff retention

What is an “area sensitive” species? What are they most threatened by?

A species that requires large areas of suitable habitat to sustain their population.

Threatened by habitat fragmentation

What populations are more susceptible to predation and disease?

Old, young, nesting females, injured, or (specifically for predation) the sick and malnourished

When are populations the highest and lowest?

Highest during birth periods, lowest following the pinch period

What are 4 situations in which predation can be a limiting factor?

1. Additive in harsh weather

2. Additive in degraded habitats (prey unable to find escape cover or enough food)

3. Predators become overpopulated due to some other factor

4. Invasive predators introduced to a new area where prey aren’t adapted

What two limiting factors are density-dependent? What does “density-dependent” mean?

Predation and disease. Density-dependent means that these factors tend to be more limiting when population sizes (or for predation, prey populations) are higher

When is disease more of a limiting factor? (not what populations are more susceptible)

When it is introduced to a population that isn’t adapted and are without defenses (similar to how predation is more limiting when its an invasive predator introduced)

What is “epizootics?”

The outbreaks of disease in wildlife

What is a zoonotic disease?

A disease that can be passed from wildlife to humans

What are the 3 FL relevant zoonotic diseases?

1. Rabies (viral)

2. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (bacterial transmitted by ticks)

3. West Nile Virus (mosquito-borne)

What are the 6 ways to manage wildlife disease?

1. No new diseases: international border policies prevent international spread

2. Monitor: hunter harvests, surveillance

3. Relevant vector control (mosquito-borne managed through pesticides)

4. Quarantine/euthanize infected individuals

5. Medical intervention (vaccines)

6. Provide quality habitat (enable persist populations that flourish)

What are the 4 examples of other injuries and illnesses mentioned in the lecture?

1. DDT (pesticide intended for mosquitos that nearly caused the extinction of the bald eagle indirectly)

2. Powerlines (birds fly into them)

3. Vitamin deficiency (Vit B1 necessary for cell function)

4. Wildlife-vehicle collisions