Classics Exam 2 Study Guide

Eurystheus

The king of Tiryns who ordered Heracles to complete the Twelve Labors. In return for completing these dangerous tasks, Heracles will become immortal. 

Lernaian Hydra

A multi-headed (1 immortal head & 8 mortal heads) serpent monster that lived in the swamps of Lerna. Heracles had to defeat it as his second labor; whenever he cut off one head, two more grew back. Iolaos cauterizes the Hydra’s necks, stopping its regeneration.

Peloponnese

A large peninsula in southern Greece where 1-6 of Heracles’ labors took place. The rest of the laborers stray farther and farther away from the Peloponnese, until the final labor (or 11th in some retellings) he goes to the underworld through a cave in the Peloponnese. 

Nemean Lion

A powerful lion with an impenetrable hide that terrorized the region of Nemea. Heracles is ordered to kill it and bring its skin back. Heracles kills it by strangling it and using its own claws to skin it, later wearing its skin as armor (but NOT in Apollodorus’ retelling).

pithos (plural pithoi)

 A large ancient Greek storage jar used to hold goods such as grain, oil, or wine. In Heracles myth, Eurystheus puts a bronze pithos under the earth to hide in when Heracles brings back monsters.

Eratosthenes (or Pseudo-Eratosthenes)

 An ancient Greek scholar traditionally associated with the “Constellation Myths: a work explaining the origins of constellations through mythology. Pseudo-Eratosthenes refers to an unknown author whose work was attributed to him.

Carcinos (crab)

A giant crab sent by Hera to attack Heracles while he fought the Hydra. Heracles crushed it, and Hera later placed it among the stars as the constellation Cancer.

Iolaos

Heracles’ nephew and companion who helped him defeat the Lernaian Hydra. He cauterized the Hydra's neck stumps to prevent new heads from growing.

Palaephatus

An ancient Greek mythographer who wrote “On Unbelievable Tales”, offering rational explanations for seemingly impossible myths. He rationalized Heracles’ myth, claiming the Hydra was a name of a fort attacked by Heracles that constantly replaced its archers on the towers. Carinos (“Crab”) was the name of a great warrior that came to defend the fort against Heracles. 

Cerynitian (or Ceryneian) Deer

A deer sacred to Artemis with golden antlers and bronze hooves. Heracles had to capture it alive as his third labor. He captures the deer by chasing it for a year, exhausting it, then shoots it with an arrow (but does not kill it). He is confronted by Artemis and Apollo on his way, but blames Eurythesus and is allowed to proceed. 

Artemis

An Olympian virgin goddess of hunting, wilderness, and wild animals. Twin sister to Apollo and daughter of Zeus and Leto. She was particularly protective of sacred animals, including the Cerynitian Deer.

Apollo

Greek god associated with prophecy, music, healing, archery, and the sun. He was Artemis's twin brother and the son of Zeus and Leto.

Erymanthian Boar

A massive, destructive wild boar that terrorized people living around Mt. Erymanthus. Heracles was ordered to capture it alive as his fourth labor. He trapped it in deep snow and brought it back to Eurystheus.

Augeias

A king of Elis who owned enormous herds of cattle. Heracles was ordered to clean his stables as his fifth labor. Augeias accepted a deal that if Heracles cleaned out the dung in one day, he could take 1/10th of his cattle. After Heracles successfully cleaned it in one day, Augeias refused to give him the cattle. The labor is later disqualified by Eurystheus because Heracles did it for payment.

Augean Stables

The enormous, filthy stables belonging to King Augeias, which had not been cleaned for years. Heracles cleaned them in one day by redirecting the rivers Alpheios and Peneios through them.

Stymphalian Birds

Man-eating birds with sharp bronze feathers that terrorized the region around the Stymphalian Marsh in Arcadia. Heracles drives them out using a bronze “castanet/clapper” (krotalon), given by Athena and made by Herphaestus, and kills them with arrows (or sometimes a slingshot).

krotalon (pl. krotala)

An ancient Greek percussion instrument similar to a rattle or castanet. Heracles used a noise-making instrument to frighten the Stymphalian Birds out of their hiding places.

Cretan Bull

A powerful (sometimes described as white) bull from the island of Crete associated with King Minos and Poseidon. Poseidon sent the bull for King Minos to sacrifice it to him, but Minos replaced the bull, angering Poseidon. Heracles captured it alive as his seventh labor.

Temple of Zeus at Olympia

A major ancient Greek temple dedicated to Zeus at the sanctuary of Olympia. It housed a famous colossal statue of Zeus, considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Hosted the Olympic games, a religious festival with athletic games. 

Diomedes (of Thrace)

A cruel Thracian king who owned man-eating horses. Heracles captured the horses as his eighth labor, eventually feeding Diomedes to his own animals. He brings the mares back to Eurystheus, who releases them, and they eventually end up being eaten by animals on Mt. Olympus.

Amazons

A legendary nation of warrior women known for their fighting abilities and independence. According to Diodorus of Sicily, Amazon means “breastless”, because it was believed they cauterized their right breast (or restricted it) to become better at archery).

Hippolyte

The queen of the Amazons who possessed a magical belt given to her by Ares. Heracles was ordered to obtain the belt as his ninth labor. Hippolyte agrees to give the belt to Heracles, but after Hera takes the form of an Amazon and spreads a lie that Heracles will kidnap Hippolyte, Heracles kills her because he believes she betrayed him. 

Hera

Queen of the Greek gods and wife of Zeus, known for her jealousy and hostility toward Heracles. She repeatedly interfered with Heracles' life and labors because he was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman.

Geryon

A monstrous giant, son of Chyrsaor, with three bodies or three heads who lived on the island of Erytheia (a land at the edge of the earth—similar to an underworld/afterlife realm). Heracles was ordered to steal his cattle as his tenth labor. Heracles fights and kills the herdsman Eurytion, his two-headed dog Orthos, and Geryon himself. 

Helios

The Greek personification of the Sun, who drove the sun chariot across the sky each day. On the journey to Erytheia, Heracles gets hot and threatens to shoot arrows at Helios. Helios, amused, helps Heracles reach Geryon's island by lending him his golden cup to travel across Okeanos.

Eurytion

A giant herdsman who guarded Geryon's cattle. Heracles killed him while completing his tenth labor.

Orthos

A two-headed watchdog belonging to Geryon that guarded his cattle. Heracles killed the dog before taking the cattle.

athloi

The Greek term for “labors”. It is commonly used to describe Heracles' Twelve Labors.

Parerga (or parergon)

Secondary or additional deeds performed alongside a hero's main tasks. In Heracles' stories, these are adventures that occur outside his official Twelve Labors

praxeis

Greek for “accomplishments”, usually referring to deeds accomplished either before or after Heracles’ 12 Labors (Example: the Cithaeronian Lion).

Garden of the Hesperides

A mythical garden at the western (or, according to Apollodorus, northern) edge of the world where golden apples grew, said to be given to Hera and Zeus as a wedding gift from Gaia. Heracles was tasked with retrieving these apples as his eleventh labor.

Hesperidean nymphs

Three nymph sisters who guarded the Garden of the Hesperides and its golden apples. Nicknamed “daughters of evening.”

Ladon

A fearsome dragon or serpent with many heads that guarded the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides. Heracles had to overcome this guardian to obtain the apples (in Hyginus’ retelling).

Nereus

An ancient sea god known as the Old Man of the Sea, who possessed prophetic knowledge. He is a shape-shifter (like the sea itself). Heracles wrestled him to learn the location of the Garden of the Hesperides. 

Antaios

 A giant son of Poseidon or Gaia who challenged travelers to wrestling matches and killed them. He became stronger whenever he touched the ground. Heracles defeated him by lifting him off the earth and crushing him.

Prometheus

A Titan who stole fire from the gods and gave it to humanity. Zeus punished him by chaining him to a rock where an eagle repeatedly ate his liver until Heracles rescued him. Heracles shoots the eagle and frees Prometheus. In return, Prometheus tells Heracles to ask his brother, Atlas, to retrieve the golden apples from the Garden of the Hesperides for him (in Apollodorus’ retelling). 

Atlas

A Titan condemned to hold up the heavens as punishment for fighting against Zeus. Heracles temporarily took his burden while Atlas retrieved the golden apples. Atlas tries to take the sky back from Heracles, but Heracles tricks him into taking it again, claiming he needs a cushion. 

Hades

The Greek god of the Underworld, ruler of the dead and owner of Cerberus. His name also refers to the realm where the souls of the deceased reside. He is also known as Plouton (“The Wealthy One”), because of the precious gems and minerals in the earth. 

Cerberus

A monstrous three-headed dog guarding the entrance to the Underworld and preventing the dead from escaping. Heracles is sent to capture him alive as his twelfth and final labor. Hades forbids him from using weapons, so he puts Cerberus in a chokehold. 

katabasis

A journey or descent into the Underworld by a living person or hero. Heracles' journey to capture Cerberus is an example, as are the Garden of the Hesperides and killing Geryon, because these locations were considered to be “at the edge of the world.”

Iole

The daughter of King Eurytos (king of Oichalia in Thessaly), whom Heracles desired to marry. Heracles joins and wins an archery contest for her hand in marriage, but Eurytos refuses because he fears Heracles would murder her and her children (like Megara). After Eurytos refused to give her to him, Heracles eventually captured her city and took her. Later, he gives her to his son, Hyllus.

Eurytos

A king of Oechalia who was skilled in archery and the father of Iole. He refused to allow Heracles to marry his daughter. Is later punished/killed by Heracles, who then captures his daughter. 

Deianeira

The second wife of Heracles and daughter of King Oeneus (king of Calydon). To win her as a bride, Heracles wrestles her fellow suitor, Acheloos. She unknowingly caused Heracles' death by giving him a poisoned garment that she believed would restore his love.

Acheloös

A shape-shifting Greek river god who competed with Heracles for Deianeira's hand in marriage. He transformed into different creatures, including a bull, but Heracles defeated him and broke off one of his horns.

keras (pl. kerata)

The ancient Greek word for horn. Greek river gods are depicted with horns (ex: Okeanos) because of the “horns”/branches of a river.

Okeanos

A primordial Greek Titan who personified the great river believed to encircle the entire world. He was also the father of many river gods and Oceanid nymphs.

Nessos

A centaur who attempted to abduct and assault Deianeira while helping her cross the Eunos River. Before dying at Heracles' hands, he tricked Deianeira into keeping his poisoned blood, convincing her it was a love potion, which eventually caused Heracles' death.

centaurs

Mythological creatures with the upper body of a human and the lower body of a horse. They were often portrayed as wild and violent, liking s*x and wine.

Sophocles' Trachiniae

An ancient Greek tragedy about the final years and death of Heracles. In the tragedy, Heracles is returning from battle after fighting against Eurytos in Oichalia, bringing back Iole as a captive. Deinaera, fearing that Heracles would choose Iole over her, accidentally caused his death by spreading Nessos’ blood (with Hydra venom) on Heracles’ robe. Deinaera, realizing her mistake, commits suicide. 

Hyllos (Hyllus)

The son of Heracles and Deianeira. He helps carry out his father's final wishes, which were to put him on a pyre/burn him alive, and marry Iole. 

Lichas

A servant and messenger of Heracles who brought him the poisoned garment sent by Deianeira. Heracles killed him in agony after realizing the garment was destroying him.

apotheosis

The process of becoming a god or being elevated to divine status. Heracles experienced apotheosis when he was taken to Mount Olympus after his death, where he reconciled with Hera and married her daughter (with Zeus), Hebe.

Hebe

The Greek goddess of youth and daughter of Zeus and Hera. After Heracles became immortal, he married Hebe and lived among the gods.

Jason

A Greek hero (son of Aison—king of Iolcos in Thessaly) and leader of the Argonauts who was sent by King Pelias to retrieve the Golden Fleece from Colchis. With the help of Medea, he completed the dangerous tasks set by King Aietes, obtained the Golden Fleece, and escaped with Medea.

Aison

The father of Jason and the former rightful king of Iolcos. He was displaced from the throne by his half-brother Pelias.

Iolcos

An ancient Greek city in Thessaly where Jason was born. It was ruled by Pelias, who sent Jason on the quest for the Golden Fleece.

Pelias

The king of Iolcos, after being warned by the Delphic oracle to “beware of the one-sandaled man”, feared Jason might take his throne. He sent Jason on the dangerous quest to retrieve the Golden Fleece, hoping he would never return.

Golden Fleece

The magical golden wool of a ram belonging to Phrixos, Pelias’ uncle. It is kept in Colchis (in the sacred grove of Ares), a kingdom at the end of the known world, and guarded by a dragon. Jason and the Argonauts traveled to retrieve it as proof of his right to the throne.

Folktale Motif D950.0.1 Magical tree guarded by serpent (dragon)

A common mythological motif in which a valuable treasure is protected by a dangerous serpent or dragon. In the story of Jason, a dragon guards the Golden Fleece. Another example is the Garden of the Hesperides.

Phrixos

A prince escaped his father, who was trying to kill him, by flying away on a golden ram with his sister Helle. He eventually reached Colchis, where he sacrificed the ram and gave its Golden Fleece to King Aietes.

Colchis

An ancient kingdom located near the eastern Black Sea, traditionally associated with modern-day Georgia. It was the home of King Aietes and Medea, and the location of the Golden Fleece.

amēchanos

An ancient Greek term meaning helpless, powerless, or without resources. It can describe a person who is unable to find a solution to a difficult situation. Often used to describe Jason, such as when King Aietes orders him to do dangerous tasks. 

catalogue poems

Poems that organize information into lists of people, places, objects, or events. They were commonly used in ancient Greek literature to describe groups of heroes and their origins (ex: who was part of the Argonauts).

ATU Tale Type 513: The Extraordinary Companions

A folktale classification describing stories in which a hero travels with companions who possess unusual or supernatural abilities. These companions help the hero overcome challenges. Examples include, Argus, who built the ship Argo, Orpheus, whose proficient in music, and Heracles.

Heracles

A Greek hero famous for his extraordinary strength and the Twelve Labors. He joined Jason and the Argonauts on their expedition but did not complete the entire journey with them.

Hylas

A young companion (boyfriend) of Heracles who disappeared after being drawn into a spring by a nymph at Kios. Heracles searched for him and was left behind by the Argonauts. According to Glaucos, a sea god, Heracles is fated to leave the voyage to finish his labors. 

Idas

One of the heroes who accompanied Jason on the Argonaut expedition. He was known for his strength, courage, and involvement in several Greek myths. An example of an old-fashioned hero who later berated Jason for asking Medea for assistance. 

Argus (#1)

The shipbuilder who constructed the Argo, the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts. He was responsible for building the vessel that carried the heroes on their expedition.

Argus (#2)

The son of Phrixos and Chalciope and the grandson of King Aietes. He was found at the Island of Ares shipwrecked, with his other three brothers. He joined the Argonauts and helped Jason during the quest for the Golden Fleece.

Argo

The ship used by Jason and the Argonauts to travel to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece. It was built by Argus and named after him. 

Dodona

An ancient Greek sanctuary dedicated to Zeus, famous for its oracle. Priests interpreted the sounds of sacred oak trees to understand messages from the god. Athena adds a talking beam from Dodona to the Argo.

Argonauts:

The group of Greek heroes who accompanied Jason on his expedition to retrieve the Golden Fleece. They included famous figures such as Heracles, Orpheus, and the Dioscuri. Jason is elected as the leader after Heracles refuses. 

Apollonius

Apollonius of Rhodes was an ancient Greek poet and Head Librarian of the Library of Alexandria who wrote the epic poem “Argonautica” (“Things about the Argonauts”). His work tells the story of Jason and the Argonauts' quest for the Golden Fleece.

Argonautica

An ancient Greek epic poem by Apollonius of Rhodes that describes Jason's journey to Colchis and his quest for the Golden Fleece. Smaller epic (only consisting of 4 books).

Aietes/Aeetes:

The king of Colchis, brother of Circe, son of Helios, and father of Medea. He possessed the Golden Fleece and required Jason to complete dangerous tasks before he would surrender it.

Helios

The Greek sun god and grandfather of Medea. He was the father of Aietes and associated with the magical power of Medea's family.

Medea

A powerful sorceress and princess of Colchis who fell in love with Jason and helped him obtain the Golden Fleece. She used her knowledge of magic to help him complete Aietes' challenges. Later leads to Jason’s downfall after he marries someone else. 

Apsyrtus

The brother of Medea who was killed during her and Jason's escape from Colchis In the Argonautica, Jason and Medea trick him into meeting, pretending to negotiate peace, then kills him. In Apollodorus’ version, Medea kills/dismembers Apsyrtus and drops his body parts in the sea to slow down Aeetes.

Grove of Ares

A sacred grove dedicated to the war god Ares in Colchis. It was the location where the Golden Fleece was kept under the protection of a dragon.

Field of Ares

A field in Colchis where Jason had to complete one of King Aietes' challenges by plowing with fire-breathing bulls and sowing dragon's teeth that grew into armed warriors.

ATU Folktale Type 313: Girl as Helper in the Hero's Flight

A folktale classification in which a woman helps a male hero escape danger, often using intelligence, magic, or special knowledge. Medea's assistance to Jason is an example of this story pattern.

Euripides' Medea

An ancient Greek tragedy about Medea, who takes revenge on Jason after he abandons her to marry the princess of Corinth (king Creon’s daughter). The play explores betrayal, revenge, gender roles, and the consequences of passion. Medea is portrayed as a tragic figure, a clever speaker, a powerful witch, and like a goddess.

Creon

The king of Corinth and father of the princess whom Jason plans to marry. He orders Medea and her children to leave Corinth because he fears what she might do. Ends up dead, alongside his daughter, after Medea’s revenge. 

Creusa/Glauce/the princess

The daughter of King Creon of Corinth and Jason's new bride. Medea sends her a poisoned robe and crown, which kill both the princess and Creon. 

Corinth/Corinthians

An important ancient Greek city where Euripides' tragedy Medea takes place. Jason plans to marry the Corinthian princess there, abandoning Medea. In some versions, it’s said Medea’s children are killed by the Corinthians as punishment for delivering the robe that kills Glauce. They must atone for this with yearly sacrifices. 

Aegeus

The king of Athens who promises Medea protection and a place to live after she is exiled from Corinth. His promise gives Medea confidence to carry out her revenge.

Athens

An influential ancient Greek city-state known for its democracy, philosophy, and cultural achievements. In Medea, it becomes the place where Medea plans to seek refuge after leaving Corinth.