AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 0

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they’re learned through interaction with the environment.

Humanistic

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization

Cognitve

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory and problem-solving

Biological

Studies the physiological bases of behavior in humans and animals

Evolutionary

Considers how behavior and mental processes serve as adaptations for survival and reproduction

Sociocultural

Analyzes how culture, social norms, and social environments influence behavior

Biopsychosocial

Combines biological, psychological, and social factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of human behavior

Confirmation bias

people tend to look for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms what they already believe

Hindsight bias

people believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if they didn't actually predict it beforehand

Overconfidence

when people have too much faith in their own judgments or abilities, thinking they know more than they actually do

Empirical Evidence

refers to information that is obtained through observation,experimentation, or measurement

Hypothesis

in psychology is a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study.

Falsifiable

a hypothesis in psychology is a statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.

Peer Review

a process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals.

Replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed

Reliability

A measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.

Research Design

The overall plan for how you will answer a research question. It includes deciding what you want to study, what you want to find out, and how you will gather and analyze your information

Methodology

The tools and methods you use to collect your data/specific ways to gather information

Quantitative Data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

Qualitative

not about numbers but gives deeper insights into complex topics. Information collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people's experiences and behaviors.

Likert Scales

a measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

Structured Interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order

Social Desirability Bias

refers to the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

Case Study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon.

Correlational research

scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables

Third Variable Problem

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest

Scatterplot

a visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1)

Positive Correlation

A correlation coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, variables moving in the same direction

Negative Correlation

Negative Correlation A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship, variables moving in opposite directions

Independent Variable

the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment

Dependent Variable

the variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment

Cofounding Variables

a variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

Operational Definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study

Experimental Group

the participants in the experimental group are indeed exposed to the independent variable

Control Group

a group of participants who were not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison with the experimental group

Random Assignment

research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly, helps minimize bias

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment

Experimentar Bias

the researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results

Single-Blind Study

research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this information

Double-Blind Study

research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group

Placebo Condition

administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested (typically given to the control group)

Sample

refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

Representative Sample

subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population

Random Sample

Random sampling ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole

Sample Bias

This bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results

Generalizability

the extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population

Experimental Method

a research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables

Descriptive Statistics

refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset

Inferential Data

involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Mean

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the average value of a set of data

Median

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the middle value of a data set when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order

Mode

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the most frequently occurring value in a data set

Range

represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Regression to the Mean

is when extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again. This happens because extreme scores are often due to temporary factors, not lasting characteristics

Positive Skew

the majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values

Negative Skew

the bulk of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values

Standard Deviation

a way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Percentile Rank

a statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

Bimodal Distribution

type of data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph

Statistical Significance

the likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

Effect Sizes

A large effect size means that a research finding has practical significance, while a small effect size indicates limited practical applications

Meta Analysis

the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

are committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Proposal Submission

Researchers submit their research proposal to the IRB for review

Initial Review

The IRB conducts an initial review to ensure the proposal meets ethical guidelines and regulations

Ethical Assessment

The IRB evaluates the proposed research's potential risks and benefits to participants

Feedback and Revision

If necessary, researchers may need to revise their proposal based on feedback from the IR.

Final Approval

Once satisfied with the revisions, the IRB grants final approval for the research to proceed

Ongoing Oversight

The IRB continues to monitor the research to ensure ongoing compliance with ethical standards

Informed Consent

Informed assent involves providing these individuals with age-appropriate or understandable information about the research study, including its purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits

Confidentiality

It requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality

Deception

may involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes

Confederates

are individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study

Debriefing

providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation