General Psychology Exam Review: Scientific Thinking & The Biology of Behavior

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Chapter 2 (Scientific Thinking & Research) and Chapter 3 (The Biology of Behavior) from the General Psychology Exam 2 study materials.

Science

A systematic approach that collects real-world observations and data to evaluate whether empirical evidence supports an idea.

Rationalism

A method of inquiry that uses logic and reasoning to understand how the world works without requiring direct testing against empirical data.

Common Sense

An intuitive understanding of the world that may feel obvious but can often be contradictory or factually incorrect.

Scientific Thinking

Reasoning skills used to generate, test, and revise theories using skepticism, evidence evaluation, and an openness to disconfirmation.

Replication

The repetition of a research study by an independent investigator to confirm, challenge, or verify its original findings.

Pseudoscience

A set of claims or practices presented as scientific that lack key qualities of genuine science, avoiding disconfirming evidence and lacking self-correction.

Physical Sciences

Scientific fields focused on the inanimate world, including stars, light, waves, atoms, Earth, compounds, and molecules (e.g., physics, chemistry, geology, and astronomy).

Biological Sciences

Scientific disciplines that study living systems (e.g., biology, genetics, botany, and zoology).

Social Sciences

Scientific disciplines that investigate humans as individuals and groups (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology, and anthropology).

OPTICR

The sequential six-step model of the scientific method: Observe, Predict, Test, Interpret, Communicate, and Replicate.

Theory

A broad set of related assumptions that explains observed evidence and generates testable predictions; it is supported by converging evidence and broader than a single study.

Hypothesis

A specific, informed, and testable prediction about what should occur under a particular condition, derived from a theory and capable of being falsified.

Reliability

The consistency and repeatability of a measurement over time or repeated administrations.

Validity

The accuracy of a measurement; whether a measuring tool or procedure actually assesses the specific construct it claims to measure.

Variable

Any characteristic or factor that can change, vary, or take on different values across individuals or situations.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor deliberately manipulated or changed by the experimenter to examine its effect.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome measured by the researcher, which is expected to change or depend upon the manipulation of the independent variable.

Population

The entire group of individuals or cases that a researcher wants to understand and draw conclusions about.

Sample

A subset of the target population that is selected, observed, and tested in a research investigation.

Experimental Group

The participants in an experimental study who receive the active treatment or experimental manipulation.

Control Group

The comparison group in an experiment that does not receive the active treatment, serving as a baseline against which experimental effects are compared.

Random Assignment

A method of assigning participants to experimental and control groups such that every participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition; a hallmark of true experiments.

Descriptive Design

A research approach designed to systematically describe behaviors or patterns (e.g., naturalistic observations, surveys, case studies) without establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Correlational Design

A research design that assesses the statistical relationship between variables without experimental manipulation, useful when manipulation is unethical or impractical.

Experimental Design

A research design that manipulates an independent variable and uses random assignment to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ where the sign indicates the direction of the relationship and the absolute numerical value indicates its strength.

Quantitative Research

Research that gathers data using numeric, measurable scales, scores, and often limited response options.

Plagiarism

The unethical practice of presenting another person's words, ideas, data, or intellectual work as one's own without appropriate attribution.

Falsification

Changing, altering, or omitting scientific data or results to improperly fit a desired outcome.

Fabrication

Making up or inventing research data or experimental results that were never actually collected.

Ethical Review

An oversight process governed by rules designed to protect human and animal participants and safeguard scientific trust.

Peer Review

A formal evaluation mechanism in which other scientists review research methodology, data, and conclusions to verify rigor before publication.

Chromosome

A very long, coiled-up thread of DNA found in cell nuclei; humans typically have $46$ chromosomes arranged in $23$ pairs.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The primary genetic material of the cell that carries coded hereditary instructions.

Gene

A small segment of DNA that carries specific instructions required for protein synthesis.

Genome

The complete set of genetic information present in an organism, encompassing its full complement of DNA and RNA.

Allele

A specific variant or alternate form of a particular gene.

Phenotype

The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism, produced by the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Monogenic Trait

A characteristic determined by a one-to-one connection to a single gene (e.g., lactose tolerance/intolerance and specific blood types).

Polygenic Trait

A characteristic influenced by the coordinated action and interaction of multiple genes (e.g., height, intelligence, personality, and depression risk).

Dominant Allele

A gene variant that expresses its observable effect in the phenotype when only a single copy is inherited.

Recessive Allele

A gene variant that expresses its observable effect only when two identical copies are present without a dominant allele.

Heritability

The proportion or extent of variation in a trait across individuals within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene activation or deactivation influenced by experience and environment that occur without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Gene-by-Environment Interaction

The joint process through which genetic potential and environmental conditions continuously interact to shape developmental and psychological outcomes.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The division of the nervous system composed of all nerves extending throughout the body that connect external tissues and organs to the CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that carries motor commands from the CNS to voluntary skeletal muscles and relays sensory input back to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The division of the peripheral nervous system that involuntarily regulates internal organs, bodily systems, and glandular secretions.

Sympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body during acute stress or emergencies, initiating the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms, restores, and conserves bodily energy after stress, supporting rest and digest functions.

Neuron

The specialized biological cell that receives, integrates, and transmits electrochemical messages across the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, remove cellular debris, facilitate neural transmission, and produce myelin.

Soma

The central cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and metabolic machinery required for cellular maintenance and integration of signals.

Dendrites

Branching, fingerlike extensions of a neuron that receive chemical and electrical signals from neighboring neurons.

Axon

A long, slender nerve fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the soma toward target cells or terminal buttons.

Myelin Sheath

A protective fatty insulating layer wrapped around axons that increases the speed and efficiency of electrical signal transmission.

Synapse

The specialized junction or microscopic gap through which one neuron communicates biochemically with an adjacent neuron.

Sensory Neurons

Afferent neurons that carry sensory signals from sensory receptors and the body inward toward the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Efferent neurons that carry descending movement commands from the central nervous system outward to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons located entirely within the central nervous system that communicate locally to integrate and relay signals between other neurons.