Science Ext Module Summaries - Google Docs

What is epistemology?

A branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods and limits of human knowledge.

What is rationalism?

The view that reason and logical thinking are important sources of knowledge.

What is empiricism?

The view that knowledge is gained through experience and sensory observation.

How does empiricism influence scientific inquiry?

It emphasises observable, measurable evidence and explanations that can be tested and revised.

What are alternative ways of knowing?

Emotion, faith, imagination, intuition, language, memory and sensory perception.

How does traditional navigation demonstrate different ways of knowing?

It combines observations of stars, waves and landmarks with experience, memory and culturally transmitted knowledge.

What is inductive reasoning?

Reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion.

What is a limitation of inductive reasoning?

A pattern observed in a sample does not guarantee that it applies universally.

What is deductive reasoning?

Reasoning from general principles to specific predictions or conclusions.

How do induction and deduction work together in science?

Induction develops explanations from observations; deduction generates predictions that can be tested.

What is Occam’s razor?

When explanations fit the evidence equally well, prefer the one requiring fewer unnecessary assumptions.

What is falsifiability?

The idea that only hypotheses that can be proven wrong can be considered scientific. Other ideas are based on faith or opinion.

Why is falsifiability important?

It allows scientific claims to be critically tested and revised or rejected.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to favour evidence supporting existing beliefs while overlooking contradictory evidence.

What is theory-dependence of observation?

The influence of existing theories and prior knowledge on observations and their interpretation.

How can theory-dependence benefit research?

Expert knowledge helps researchers recognise important patterns and interpret evidence.

How can theory-dependence limit research?

Existing expectations can cause unexpected evidence or alternative explanations to be overlooked.

How can confirmation bias be reduced?

Use transparent methods, blinding where appropriate, independent review and deliberate consideration of contradictory evidence.

What is cultural observational knowledge?

Knowledge developed through repeated observations and experience within a culture and passed between generations.

How have Aboriginal peoples used astronomical knowledge?

Observations of the sky have informed navigation, seasonal activities and resource availability.

How is cultural knowledge preserved?

Through oral traditions, stories, practical teaching, written records and cultural practices.

How does cultural burning demonstrate observational knowledge?

It applies knowledge of local environments, seasons and fire behaviour to manage Country.

What is a scientific paradigm?

A shared framework of theories, assumptions and methods that guides scientific research.

What is a paradigm shift?

A fundamental change in the framework used to understand and investigate scientific phenomena.

How can technology contribute to paradigm shifts?

It can reveal new evidence that existing explanations cannot adequately explain.

How did Lavoisier challenge phlogiston theory?

His measurements supported an explanation of combustion involving oxygen rather than the release of phlogiston.

How do economic factors influence research?

Funding determines the equipment, staff, time and investigations available.

How do political factors influence research?

Government priorities, policies and funding decisions shape research directions.

How does international cooperation support science?

It allows researchers to share expertise, resources, equipment and data.

What is informed consent?

Voluntary agreement to participate after understanding the research procedures, risks and choices.

What ethical concerns arise in animal research?

Animal suffering, welfare and whether the potential benefits justify the harms.

What is a biobank?

A collection of biological samples and associated information stored for research.

What ethical concerns arise from biobanks?

Consent, privacy, ownership, access and future uses of samples and genetic information.

Why is using data from unethical research controversial?

Potential benefits must be weighed against harm to victims and the risk of legitimising unethical practices.

What is a literature review?

A critical examination and synthesis of existing research relevant to a research question.

Why conduct a literature review?

To establish existing knowledge, identify gaps and justify the proposed investigation.

How do you develop a research question?

Choose a broad topic, read existing research, narrow the focus, identify a problem and formulate a specific question.

What makes a strong research question?

It is focused, researchable, feasible, specific and relevant.

What is a comparative research question?

A question investigating differences between groups or conditions.

What is a correlational research question?

A question investigating whether variables are associated.

What is a descriptive research question?

A question investigating the characteristics of a population or phenomenon.

What is a null hypothesis?

A statement that there is no specified effect, difference or association.

What is an alternative hypothesis?

A statement that a specified effect, difference or association exists.

What is a research rationale?

An explanation of why an investigation is worthwhile and scientifically justified.

What should a research plan include?

Strategy, methodology, data analysis, communication methods, timelines and benchmarks.

What is a research benchmark?

A planned milestone used to monitor progress.

Why should a research plan be critically reviewed?

To identify weaknesses and improve feasibility, validity and reliability.

Why use accepted referencing protocols?

To acknowledge sources consistently and allow others to locate the evidence used.

What is an experimental control?

A comparison condition used to assess the effect of a treatment.

What is a confounding variable?

An additional factor that could explain an observed relationship between variables.

What is validity?

The extent to which an investigation measures or addresses what it claims to investigate.

What is reliability?

The consistency of results when measurements or investigations are repeated.

What is accuracy?

How close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.

What is precision?

How closely repeated measurements agree with one another.

Can measurements be precise but inaccurate?

Yes. Measurements can cluster closely together while consistently differing from the true value.

What is a systematic error?

A measurement error that consistently shifts results in a particular direction or follows a predictable pattern.

What is an example of systematic error?

A balance that consistently reads above zero when empty.

How can systematic error be reduced?

Calibrate instruments, correct zero errors and check the measurement method.

What is random error?

Unpredictable variation in repeated measurements.

How can the effect of random error be reduced?

Repeat measurements and calculate an appropriate average.

Does repeating measurements remove systematic error?

No. Repetition does not correct a consistent measurement bias.

What is parallax error?

A reading error caused by viewing a scale from an incorrect angle.

Is parallax error always random?

No. It can be systematic if the viewing angle is consistently wrong, or random if the angle varies.

What is measurement uncertainty?

A range expressing the uncertainty associated with a measured value, commonly reported using ±.

How is uncertainty commonly estimated for an analogue scale?

As half the smallest scale division, unless another justified estimate is available.

How should uncertainty for a digital instrument be determined?

Use the instrument’s stated specifications or an appropriate estimate based on its resolution.

How is percentage error calculated?

Absolute value of measured value minus accepted value, divided by the absolute accepted value, multiplied by 100%.

What do error bars represent?

A specified measure of uncertainty or variability, such as standard deviation, standard error or a confidence interval.

Why must error bars be labelled?

Different types of error bars represent different quantities and cannot be interpreted interchangeably.

What is a line of best fit?

A line that represents the overall relationship between variables in a data set.

What is quantitative data?

Numerical data obtained through measurement or counting.

What is qualitative data?

Non-numerical data describing qualities, characteristics or experiences.

What are examples of quantitative research methods?

Controlled experiments, numerical measurements and closed-ended surveys.

What are examples of qualitative research methods?

Interviews, observations and analysis of written or spoken responses.

What is reflexivity?

Critical reflection on how the researcher’s role and assumptions may influence the research.

What is observational data?

Data collected by observing phenomena without deliberately manipulating variables.

What is experimental data?

Data collected during investigations involving deliberately manipulated variables.

What is field data?

Data collected in real-world settings rather than solely in a laboratory.

What is raw data?

Data in its original form before processing or analysis.

What is a data logger?

An electronic device that automatically records measurements over time.

What is remote sensing?

Collecting information about an object or area without direct contact, such as through satellite sensors.

What is streamed data?

Data transmitted continuously or repeatedly for ongoing processing.

What is big data?

Data whose size, complexity or rate of production requires specialised storage and analysis methods.

What are the three commonly described characteristics of big data?

Volume, variety and velocity.

How does the Kepler telescope illustrate big data?

It collected large quantities of stellar brightness measurements requiring extensive computational analysis.

What is data processing?

Preparing raw data for analysis through checking, organising, coding and transforming it.

What is data cleansing?

Identifying and appropriately correcting errors, inconsistencies, duplicates and missing data.

Should outliers automatically be removed during data cleansing?

No. Investigate them and remove them only with a justified, documented reason.

What is data coding?

Assigning labels or categories to data so it can be systematically analysed.

Why standardise units before analysis?

To make measurements comparable and prevent calculation errors.

Why preserve an unmodified copy of raw data?

To allow checking, transparent processing and later reanalysis.

What should be considered when selecting a public data set?

Relevance, variables, sampling, uncertainty, format, permissions and available analysis tools.

What is the difference between data and evidence?

Data are collected observations or measurements; evidence is data used to support or challenge a claim.

What is content analysis?

Systematic analysis of recorded communication to identify categories, patterns or meanings.

What material can be analysed using content analysis?

Written texts, interviews, speeches, images, films and online communication.

What is an advantage of content analysis?

It allows systematic examination of communication and patterns across sources.

What is a limitation of content analysis?

Coding choices can introduce bias, and simple counts may overlook context.

What is thematic analysis?

A method of identifying, analysing and reporting patterns of meaning within qualitative data.

What are the six main phases of thematic analysis?

Familiarisation, initial coding, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and reporting.

What is a code in qualitative analysis?

A label assigned to a meaningful feature of the data.