GOV

Unit 2 Gov Test

Senate qualifications and term

Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for 9 years, and serve a 6-year term.

House of Representatives qualifications and term

Must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for 7 years, and serve a 2-year term.

Presidential qualifications and term

Must be at least 35 years old, a natural-born citizen, and serve a 4-year term.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed and granted to Congress in the Constitution.

Implied powers

Powers not explicitly written in the Constitution but reasonably derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Congressional oversight

The authority of Congress to monitor, review, and supervise the executive branch and federal agencies.

Casework

Direct assistance that members of Congress provide to constituents resolving issues with federal agencies.

Impeachment process

The House of Representatives impeaches with a majority vote, and the Senate conducts the trial requiring a two-thirds vote to convict and remove.

Advice and consent power (Appointments & Treaties)

The constitutional authority of the Senate to confirm presidential appointments and ratify international treaties.

Federal lawmaking process

A bill is introduced, reviewed in committee, debated, passed by both chambers of Congress, and sent to the President for signature or veto.

Constitutional amendment process

Requires proposal by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress (or national convention) and ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures (or conventions).

17th Amendment

Established the direct popular election of U.S. Senators by the voters of each state.

27th Amendment

Mandates that congressional pay adjustments take effect only after the following election of representatives.

12th Amendment

Created separate Electoral College ballots for the election of President and Vice President.

20th Amendment

Moved presidential inauguration and congressional convening dates to January, shortening the "lame duck" period.

22nd Amendment

Limits an individual to serving a maximum of two terms (or 10 years) as President.

25th Amendment

Establishes line of succession, procedures for filling vice presidential vacancies, and protocols for presidential disability.

11th Amendment

Shields states from being sued in federal court by citizens of another state or foreign nation (state sovereign immunity).

Delegate model of representation

A representation philosophy where lawmakers vote strictly in accordance with the expressed desires of their constituents.

Trustee model of representation

A representation philosophy where lawmakers vote based on their personal judgment, conscience, and expertise.

Politico model of representation

A hybrid representation approach where lawmakers alternate between delegate and trustee behaviors depending on the situation.

Senate leadership structure

Led by the Majority and Minority Leaders along with party whips who mobilize votes and set the legislative agenda.

House leadership structure

Led by the Speaker of the House, supported by the Majority Leader, Minority Leader, and party whips.

Standing committee

A permanent congressional committee that oversees legislation within a specific policy domain.

Select committee

A temporary congressional committee established to carry out a specific investigation or address an emerging issue.

Joint committee

A congressional panel containing members from both the House and Senate tasked with study, oversight, or administrative tasks.

Conference committee

A temporary joint committee created to reconcile differing versions of a bill passed by the House and Senate.

Filibuster

A Senate procedural tactic involving prolonged debate to delay or block a vote on legislation or nominations.

Cloture

A Senate procedure requiring a three-fifths majority (60 votes) to limit debate and end a filibuster.

Roles of the President

Serves as Commander-in-Chief, Chief Diplomat, Chief Legislator, Chief Executive, and Head of State.

Executive order

A presidential directive that directs federal agencies and manages operations, carrying the force of law without congressional approval.

Executive agreement

An international accord made directly between the President and the head of another state that bypasses Senate ratification.

Executive privilege

The recognized power of the executive branch to withhold confidential communications from Congress or the courts to protect national security or deliberative processes.

War Powers Act

A federal law mandating presidential notification to Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and limiting military engagements without congressional authorization to 60 days.

Constitutional roles of the Vice President

Serves as President of the Senate to cast tie-breaking votes and assumes the presidency upon death, resignation, or removal of the President.

Bureaucrat

A non-elected civil servant or government employee who carries out and administers public policies.

Bureaucracy

The administrative system of specialized departments, agencies, and commissions responsible for implementing government laws and programs.

Civil Service Commission

A former federal body created to replace political patronage with merit-based examination and appointment.

Presidential Cabinet

A formal group of advisers composed of the heads of the 15 executive departments and other selected high-ranking officials.

Size of the Supreme Court

Determined by statutory authority of Congress; currently fixed at nine justices.

Judicial review

The authority of the courts to assess whether legislative statutes and executive actions adhere to the Constitution.

Original jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear and adjudicate a case first, before any appellate review.

Appellate jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review, uphold, or reverse the decisions of lower trial courts.

Dual court system

The American judicial division in which separate federal and state court systems exercise jurisdiction concurrently.

Criminal law

The body of law regulating conduct defined as an offense against society, prosecuted by the state with penalties such as fines or incarceration.

Civil law

The branch of law settling non-criminal disputes between individuals or private organizations, typically resolving claims for damages or equity.

Three tiers of the federal court system

U.S. District Courts (trial level), U.S. Courts of Appeals (intermediate appellate level), and the U.S. Supreme Court (final court of appeal).

Precedent (stare decisis)

A prior judicial decision that establishes an authoritative principle governing subsequent cases with similar legal facts.

Judicial law clerk

A legal professional who assists judges by conducting legal research, analyzing briefs, and drafting preliminary opinions.

Writ of certiorari

An order issued by an appellate court directing a lower court to transmit the case record for review.

Rule of Four

The Supreme Court convention requiring at least four justices to agree before a petition for a writ of certiorari is granted.

Legal brief

A formal written document filed by an attorney presenting the legal arguments and precedents supporting a party's position.

Amicus curiae brief

A "friend of the court" brief submitted by a non-litigant party to provide relevant information, legal insight, or specialized expertise.

Majority opinion

The binding official ruling of an appellate court concurred in by more than half of the participating justices.

Concurring opinion

A judicial opinion written by a judge who agrees with the majority's conclusion but relies on different legal reasoning.

Dissenting opinion

An opinion authored by one or more judges disagreeing with the majority outcome and detailing their legal objections.

Judicial activism

A philosophy of judicial decision-making where judges interpret the Constitution expansively to remedy social injustices and alter public policy.

Judicial restraint

A philosophy of judicial decision-making where judges minimize the role of personal beliefs and defer to elected branches unless an action clearly breaches the Constitution.

State government structure and key functions

Oversees public education and administers elections; organized into a Governor (executive), State Legislature (legislative), and State Courts (judicial).

County government structure and key functions

Manages local records and regional services; organized into a County Executive/Administrator, County Legislature, and County Courts.

Town government structure (e.g., Guilderland)

Administered locally by a Town Supervisor (executive), Town Board (legislative), and Town Court (judicial).

Village government structure (e.g., Altamont)

Administered locally by a Mayor (executive), Village Board of Trustees (legislative), and Village Court (judicial).

Specialized government (special district)

A localized unit of government established to administer a single specialized service, such as a school or fire protection district.