Psych Test 2

Sensation

The process of detecting physical energy from the environment through sensory receptors.

Free association

A psychoanalytic technique in which an individual speaks whatever thoughts, memories, or feelings come to mind without censorship, revealing unconscious material.

Synesthesia

The stimulation of a neural pathway causes sensation within another. The thalamus receives crossed sensory input from stimulation. Genetic link and most prevalent amongst women

• Caused by a lack of pruning in a neural connection throughout development

The 2 factors of Temperament.

Reactivity and arousal.

Why we study the monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins:

Determine role of genetics in personality.

Brain structure involved in introversion and extroversion:

Introversion and extroversion is due to the over or under stimulation of the reticular formation.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Bottom-up processing

Processing that begins with sensory information and builds toward a complete perception, driven by incoming data.

Top-down processing

Processing influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, experiences, and context to interpret sensory information.

Sensory receptors

Specialized cells or nerve endings that detect environmental stimuli.

Transduction

The conversion of physical energy into electrical or neural signals that the brain can process.

Vision transduction

The conversion of light energy into electrical signals within photoreceptors in the retina.

Hearing transduction

The conversion of sound vibrations into electrical signals by hair cells in the organ of Corti.

Taste transduction

The conversion of dissolved chemical molecules into electrical signals by taste receptor cells.

Smell transduction

The conversion of airborne odor molecules into electrical signals by olfactory receptor neurons.

Touch transduction

The conversion of physical pressure or temperature into electrical signals by sensory neurons in the skin.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experiences.

Absolute threshold

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

Difference threshold (JND)

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

The principle that the difference needed to notice a change depends on a constant proportion of the original stimulus rather than a constant amount.

Sensory adaptation

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant, unchanging stimulus over time, allowing focus on new changes.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition or expectation that strongly influences how sensory information is perceived.

Wavelength (light)

The distance between corresponding peaks of consecutive light waves, which determines perceived color or hue.

Hue

The color dimension determined by the wavelength of light.

Short wavelengths (vision)

Light waves associated with the perception of blue and violet colors.

Long wavelengths (vision)

Light waves associated with the perception of red colors.

Amplitude (light)

The height or intensity of a light wave, which determines perceived brightness.

Retina

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing rods and cones that convert light into neural signals.

Rods

Retinal photoreceptors that work best in dim lighting, detect black and white, and are crucial for peripheral vision.

Cones

Retinal photoreceptors concentrated in the fovea that function best in bright light, providing color vision and fine detail.

Fovea

A small central area of the retina containing the highest concentration of cones and providing the sharpest visual acuity.

Photopigments

Light-sensitive chemicals in rods and cones that absorb light and initiate sensory transduction.

Optic nerve

Nerve bundle that carries neural impulses containing visual information from the retina to the brain.

Blind spot

The area where the optic nerve exits the retina, containing no rods or cones, leaving an area the brain fills in.

Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)

Theory stating that the retina contains three types of cones sensitive to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory stating that color vision operates via opposing pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white.

Afterimage

A visual sensation that persists after prolonged viewing of a stimulus, often explained by opponent-process fatigue.

Primary visual cortex

The visual processing area located in the occipital lobe that receives visual inputs from the LGN.

Feature detectors

Specialized neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific visual characteristics such as lines, edges, angles, and movement.

What pathway (ventral stream)

Visual pathway traveling toward the temporal lobe responsible for object identification and recognition.

Where pathway (dorsal stream)

Visual pathway traveling toward the parietal lobe responsible for spatial awareness, location, and motion interaction.

Depth perception

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and accurately judge distance.

Binocular cues

Depth cues that require the coordinated use of both eyes.

Retinal disparity

A binocular depth cue where the brain calculates depth by comparing the slightly different images received by each eye.

Convergence

A binocular depth cue based on the inward neuromuscular turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects.

Monocular cues

Depth cues available to either eye individually.

Relative size

A monocular cue where smaller-looking objects are perceived as farther away if assumed to be of similar actual size.

Interposition

A monocular cue where an object that partially blocks another is perceived as closer.

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases.

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where surfaces with finer, less distinct detail are perceived as more distant.

Relative height

A monocular cue where objects positioned higher in the visual field are perceived as farther away.

Motion parallax

A monocular cue where nearby objects appear to move faster across the visual field than distant objects while moving.

Gestalt principles

Principles describing how the brain organizes isolated sensory elements into coherent, meaningful patterns.

Figure-ground

Gestalt principle of organizing the visual field into objects of interest (figures) that stand out from backgrounds.

Proximity (Gestalt)

Gestalt grouping rule where objects located close together are perceived as belonging together.

Similarity (Gestalt)

Gestalt grouping rule where visually similar objects are grouped together.

Continuity (Gestalt)

Gestalt rule where the brain prefers perceiving smooth, uninterrupted, continuous paths over disjointed lines.

Closure (Gestalt)

Gestalt rule where the brain fills in missing visual information to perceive a complete, enclosed figure.

Connectedness (Gestalt)

Gestalt rule where objects physically linked together are perceived as a single integrated unit.

Perceptual constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging in size, shape, color, and brightness despite variations in sensory stimulation.

Size constancy

Perceiving an object as having a constant size regardless of changes in viewing distance.

Shape constancy

Perceiving an object as maintaining its shape despite changes in viewing angle.

Color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as retaining their color across varied lighting conditions.

Brightness constancy

Perceiving an object as having constant illumination or lightness despite changes in lighting.

Frequency (sound)

The number of sound wave cycles per second, measured in Hertz ($\text{Hz}$), which determines perceived pitch.

Pitch

The highness or lowness of a sound determined by the frequency of sound waves.

Amplitude (sound)

The height or intensity of a sound wave, which determines perceived loudness.

Pinna

The visible outer structure of the ear that collects and funnels sound waves into the auditory canal.

Auditory canal

The ear canal that directs sound waves from the pinna to the tympanic membrane.

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

A thin membrane in the middle ear that vibrates in response to sound waves striking it.

Ossicles

Three tiny bones of the middle ear—malleus, incus, and stapes—that amplify and transmit sound vibrations.

Malleus (hammer)

The first middle ear ossicle that receives vibrations directly from the eardrum.

Incus (anvil)

The intermediate middle ear ossicle that bridges vibrations between the malleus and stapes.

Stapes (stirrup)

The third middle ear ossicle that transfers amplified vibrations directly onto the oval window.

Oval window

A membrane-covered opening that transfers vibrations from the stapes into the fluid of the cochlea.

Cochlea

A fluid-filled, spiral-shaped structure of the inner ear responsible for auditory transduction.

Basilar membrane

A membrane within the cochlea that undulates in response to fluid movement, housing the organ of Corti.

Hair cells (auditory)

Sensory receptor cells in the cochlea whose mechanical bending triggers electrical nerve impulses.

Auditory nerve

Nerve bundle carrying electrical signals from cochlear hair cells to the brain.

Frequency Theory

Pitch perception theory asserting that pitch is determined by the rate of neural firing in the auditory nerve.

Place Theory

Pitch perception theory stating that pitch is determined by the specific location of maximal vibration along the basilar membrane.

Sound localization

The sensory ability to identify the spatial origin of a sound using interaural time and intensity differences.

Interaural time difference

A localization cue arising because sound arrives at the ear nearest the source slightly sooner than the other.

Interaural intensity difference

A localization cue where sound is perceived louder by the ear closer to the source due to head acoustic shadow.

Conductive hearing loss

Hearing impairment caused by physical or mechanical obstruction in transmitting sound through outer or middle ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss resulting from damage to cochlear hair cells or the auditory nerve, often irreversible.

Four skin senses

The basic tactile sensations perceived through skin receptors: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

Nociceptors

Specialized sensory receptor neurons that detect potentially damaging physical or chemical stimuli causing pain.

Gate-control theory

Theory proposing that the spinal cord contains neural gates that can block or facilitate pain signals to the brain.

Endorphins

Endogenous opiate-like neurotransmitters produced by the nervous system to inhibit pain signals.

Sweet taste

Basic taste modality identifying carbohydrate- and energy-rich nutritional sources.

Salty taste

Basic taste modality that detects essential minerals and electrolytes like sodium.

Sour taste

Basic taste modality detecting acidity, often warning against spoiled or unripe foods.

Bitter taste

Basic taste modality that serves as an adaptive warning system against natural poisons and toxins.

Umami taste

Savory basic taste triggered by glutamate and amino acids, indicating protein-rich food.

Papillae

Small structural protrusions covering the surface of the tongue, some of which house taste buds.

Taste buds

Sensory organs containing clusters of taste receptor cells that detect chemicals dissolved in saliva.

Taste receptor cells

Chemoreceptor cells inside taste buds that transduce chemical tastants into electrical nerve impulses.

Olfaction

The chemical sense of smell, considered primitive due to direct neuroanatomical connections to limbic regions.

Olfactory epithelium

Tissue high inside the nasal cavity containing specialized olfactory receptor neurons.