PSYCHOLOGY EXAM TWO
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Chapter 7: Memory Process
Memory relies on three sequential processes: encoding (getting information in), storage (maintaining information over time), and retrieval (getting information back out).
Chapter 7: Information-Processing Theory
A model that uses the computer as an analog for the human mind, viewing the mind as an organized system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.
Chapter 7: Role of Attention
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Attention acts as a filter because the human brain can effectively handle only one attention-consuming task at a time (multitasking impairs performance).
Chapter 7: Levels of Processing Theory
Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes (e.g., structural/shallow vs. phonemic/intermediate vs. semantic/deep processing).
Chapter 7: Elaboration
Associating new information with other information already stored in long-term memory during encoding to improve retention.
Chapter 7: Visual Imagery & Dual-Coding Theory
Imagery involves creating visual pictures to represent words to be remembered. Dual-Coding Theory states that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic (verbal) and visual codes because either code can lead to recall.
Chapter 7: Motivation to Remember (MTR)
High motivation to remember at the precise time of encoding improves subsequent memory recall.
Chapter 7: Sensory Memory
A memory store that preserves information in its original sensory form for a very brief moment (fractions of a second) after sensory stimulation ends.
Chapter 7: Short-Term Memory (STM)
A limited-capacity memory store that holds unrehearsed information for about 10 to 20 seconds.
Chapter 7: Rehearsal
The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information to maintain it in short-term memory.
Chapter 7: STM Capacity & Chunking
Historically measured at 7 ± 2 items, but modern estimates place capacity closer to 4 ± 1 items. A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single functional unit to increase capacity.
Chapter 7: Working Memory & WMC
Working Memory refers to a limited-capacity system for temporary storage and active manipulation of information during complex tasks. Working Memory Capacity (WMC) measures one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention.
Chapter 7: Long-Term Memory (LTM)
An unlimited-capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
Chapter 7: Flashbulb Memories
Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous, emotional, or traumatic events. Research shows they are not necessarily permanent or immune to distortion.
Chapter 7: Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a strong feeling that it is just out of reach; represents a failure in memory retrieval.
Chapter 7: Retrieval Cues
External or internal stimuli (hints, related information, partial recollections) that help gain access to stored memories.
Chapter 7: Context Cues & Hypnosis
Context cues involve reinstating the environmental or mental context of an event to facilitate retrieval. Hypnosis uses context cues but increases the risk of reporting incorrect or distorted information.
Chapter 7: Reconstructing Memories
The concept that memories are not exact recordings, but reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and include details that never actually occurred.
Chapter 7: Misinformation Effect
The phenomenon where a participant's recall of an event is altered by introducing misleading post-event information or leading questions.
Chapter 7: Source Monitoring & Source-Monitoring Errors
Source monitoring is the process of making inferences about the origin of a memory. A source-monitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source.
Chapter 7: Pseudoforgetting
The phenomenon of thinking you forgot something that you actually never learned or encoded in the first place due to ineffective encoding/lack of attention.
Chapter 7: Decay Theory
The theory that forgetting occurs because memory traces spontaneously fade away over time.
Chapter 7: Interference Theory
The theory that people forget information because of competition from other learned material.
Chapter 7: Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference
Proactive Interference: Previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. Retroactive Interference: Newly learned information impairs the retention of previously learned information.
Chapter 7: Encoding Specificity Principle
The principle that the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to or matches the original memory code formed during encoding.
Chapter 7: Motivated Forgetting & Repression
Motivated forgetting occurs when people intentionally or unintentionally forget distressing thoughts. Repression (Freudian) involves keeping distressing thoughts buried deep in the unconscious.
Chapter 7: Suggestibility & Child Eyewitness Testimony
People of all ages report inaccurate details when asked leading questions; children under age 9 or 10 are significantly more susceptible to memory distortions than older individuals.
Chapter 8.1: Language as Species-Specific & Universal
Language is species-specific (acquired naturally only by humans) and species-universal (virtually all young humans learn language during normal development).
Chapter 8.1: Brain Lateralization & Aphasia
Speech processing is lateralized, showing greater electrical activity in the left hemisphere. Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs language processing without affecting general intelligence.
Chapter 8.1: Behavioral Theories of Language (Skinner & Bandura)
B.F. Skinner argued language is learned through selective reinforcement of adult-like speech. Albert Bandura added that language acquisition occurs through observation, imitation, and generalization.
Chapter 8.1: Nativist Theory & Chomsky (LAD & Universal Grammar)
Noam Chomsky proposed humans possess an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a biological structure that encodes Universal Grammar and supports language learning regardless of culture.
Chapter 8.1: Critical Period Hypothesis
The view that language must be acquired within a specific early developmental window. Supported by cases like Victor (the Wild Child) and Genie, who suffered severe early isolation.
Chapter 8.1: Interactionist Views & LASS
Suggests language develops from a combination of biological readiness and rich social interaction. Introduces the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), where adults structure language for children.
Chapter 8.1: Expansion, Recast, & Motherese
LASS techniques: Expansion (imitating and expanding child statements), Recast (rephrasing an incomplete sentence into correct grammar), and Motherese/Infant-Directed Speech (high-pitched, exaggerated vocal tones).
Chapter 8.2: Levels of Analyzing Intelligence
Intelligence can be viewed at 3 levels: as a single entity (g factor), as a few primary abilities (fluid vs. crystallized), or as a collection of many specific cognitive processes.
Chapter 8.2: Spearman's g Factor
Charles Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g factor) is a single, underlying mental capability that drives performance across all cognitive domains, supported by positive correlations among varied test scores.
Chapter 8.2: Cattell's Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Raymond Cattell divided intelligence into two types: Fluid Intelligence (the raw ability to think on the spot and solve novel problems) and Crystallized Intelligence (acquired factual knowledge about the world).
Chapter 8.2: Thurstone's 7 Primary Mental Abilities
Louis Thurstone argued against a single g factor, proposing 7 independent primary mental abilities: word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial visualization, numbering, rote memory, and perceptual speed.
Chapter 8.2: Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg's model covering 3 major components: Analytical (information processing), Creative (handling new tasks/situations), and Practical (adapting to, shaping, and selecting real-world environments).
Chapter 8.2: Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner proposed that people possess distinct, independent types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist).
Chapter 8.2: Carroll's Three-Stratum Theory
John Carroll's integrative model organizing cognitive abilities into three hierarchical tiers: Stratum III (general intelligence g), Stratum II (broad abilities like fluid/crystallized), and Stratum I (specific narrow abilities).
Chapter 8.2: Standardized Intelligence Tests (WISC & WAIS)
Standardized measures including the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC, ages 6+) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), both dividing performance into Verbal and Performance IQ subscores.
Chapter 8.2: Stability & Predictive Validity of IQ Scores
IQ scores are highly stable over time (especially at older ages) and strongly predict academic achievement, economic success, and occupational status, though non-IQ factors (motivation, social skills) also heavily influence success.
Chapter 8.2: Genes, Environment, & The Bronfenbrennerian View
Development of intelligence is shaped by genetic inheritance (which exerts stronger influence as children age) interacting with complex, layered environmental systems (Bronfenbrenner model).
Chapter 8.2: HOME Scale & Schooling Effects
The Home Observation Measure of Environment (HOME) tracks intellectual support at home. Schooling directly increases IQ (scores rise during the school year and drop over summer breaks).
Chapter 8.2: Flynn Effect & Stereotype Threat
Flynn Effect: The worldwide generation-to-generation increase in average IQ test scores over time. Stereotype Threat: Apprehension that one's performance will confirm a negative stereotype about one's group, impairing test performance.
Chapter 9: Motivation Definition & Major Theories
Motivation is goal-directed behavior. Drive Theories emphasize internal homeostasis/equilibrium; Incentive Theories focus on external rewards pulling behavior; Evolutionary Theories focus on adaptive survival value.
Chapter 9: Components of Motivation
3 major components: Activation (the decision to initiate a behavior), Persistence (continued effort toward a goal despite obstacles), and Intensity (the concentration and vigor applied to pursuing the goal).
Chapter 9: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation & Overjustification Effect
Intrinsic Motivation: Pursuing tasks for inherent satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivation: Pursuing tasks for external rewards. Overjustification Effect: Offering extrinsic rewards for an already intrinsically rewarding activity diminishes intrinsic motivation.
Chapter 9: Major Components of Emotion
Emotion consists of four interrelated components: subjective feelings, physiological correlates (bodily arousal), cognitive thoughts/appraisals, and the desire to take action.
Chapter 9: Theories of Emotion (Learning, Discrete, Functionalist)
Learning Perspective: Emotional expression depends heavily on environmental conditioning/rearing. Discrete Emotions Theory: Emotions are innate, distinct, and tied to universal physiological patterns. Functionalist Approach: Emotions function to promote action toward goals.
Chapter 9: Emotional Intelligence & Delayed Gratification
Emotional Intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and utilize emotions. Evaluated via tasks like the marshmallow test (delayed gratification), which predicts long-term social, emotional, and academic success.
Chapter 9: Cultural Display Rules
Culturally learned norms and etiquette that govern how, when, where, and to whom emotions should be visually expressed or suppressed.
Chapter 10: Prenatal Development Stages
Germinal Period (Conception to 2 weeks; zygote formation), Embryonic Period (2 to 8 weeks; organogenesis and high vulnerability), and Fetal Period (9 weeks to birth; rapid growth and sensory system refinement).
Chapter 10: Historical Views: Preformation vs. Epigenesis
Preformation: Historical belief that an organism develops from a fully formed mini human already inside the germ cell. Epigenesis (Aristotle): The modern understanding that new structures and functions emerge progressively during development.
Chapter 10: Fetal Sensory Experience
Fetuses actively process sensory inputs in the womb: Touch (body contact), Taste (flavors in amniotic fluid), Smell (amniotic fluid scent influenced by maternal diet), and Sound (maternal voice and heartbeats).
Chapter 10: Teratogens & Fetal Programming
Maternal malnutrition, extreme stress, anxiety, depression, and toxins act as teratogens that can permanently program the fetal brain, predisposing individuals to physical and psychiatric illnesses decades later.
Chapter 10: Motor Development & Maturation
Motor development is the progression of physical coordination. Driven by physical growth, ongoing environmental exploration, and maturation (the gradual, unspooling execution of one's genetic blueprint).
Chapter 10: Harlow's Attachment Study (Cloth vs. Wire Mother)
Harry Harlow raised infant rhesus monkeys with substitute mothers (cloth vs. wire). Monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother for comfort—especially when frightened—proving attachment is based on contact comfort, not just feeding.
Chapter 10: Attachment & Separation Anxiety
Attachment is a deep, emotional bond between infants and primary caregivers that develops gradually over time. Separation anxiety is the emotional distress displayed when infants are separated from attachment figures.
Chapter 10: Ainsworth's Strange Situation & Attachment Patterns
Mary Ainsworth used short caregiver separations/reunions to identify three attachment patterns: Secure (explores, upset when parent leaves, quickly comforted on return), Anxious-Ambivalent (anxious, intensely distressed, resists comfort on return), and Avoidant (indifferent to parent presence or departure).
Chapter 10: Kohlberg's Moral Development Stages
Preconventional Level (morality driven by external reward and punishment), Conventional Level (morality driven by social order, rules, and duty), and Postconventional Level (morality driven by abstract, personal ethical codes).
Chapter 10: Erikson's Psychosocial Stages & Lifespan Development
Erik Erikson proposed 8 lifespan stages, each marked by a specific psychosocial crisis. Key stages include Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence), Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood), Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood), and Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood).
Chapter 10: Piaget's Cognitive Adaptation (Assimilation vs. Accommodation)
Assimilation: Interpreting new external experiences using existing cognitive schemas without changing them. Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to fit new environmental experiences.
Chapter 10: Piaget's 4 Cognitive Developmental Stages
Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs; develops object permanence), 2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs; symbolic thought, centration, egocentrism, animism), 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs; conservation, decentration, operational logic), 4. Formal Operational (11+ yrs; abstract and hypothetical reasoning).
Chapter 10: Emerging Adulthood
Jeffrey Arnett's proposed transitional developmental period (ages 18-25) between adolescence and full adulthood, characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and a distinct feeling of being "in-between."
Chapter 11: Personality, Consistency, & Distinctiveness
Personality is an individual's unique set of consistent behavioral traits. It explains both consistency (stability of behavior across time and situations) and distinctiveness (behavioral differences among people in the same situation).
Chapter 11: Personality Traits & Factor Analysis
A personality trait is a durable disposition to behave in a particular manner across diverse situations. Factor analysis is a statistical technique that correlates clusters of variables to identify core underlying traits.
Chapter 11: McCrae & Costa's Big Five Personality Model (OCEAN)
Five broad dimensions: Openness (curious/imaginative), Conscientiousness (organized/disciplined), Extraversion (outgoing/assertive), Agreeableness (cooperative/trusting), and Neuroticism (anxious/emotionally unstable).
Chapter 11: Psychodynamic Perspective (Freud)
Personality theories descended from Sigmund Freud that focus on unconscious mental processes, early childhood experiences, primitive motives, and coping mechanisms for sexual/aggressive conflicts.
Chapter 11: Freud's Personality Structure (Id, Ego, Superego)
Id: Instinctive component operating on the pleasure principle (demands immediate gratification). Ego: Reality-testing decision-maker operating on the reality principle (delays gratification). Superego: Moral component incorporating societal standards of right/wrong.
Chapter 11: Freud's Levels of Awareness
Conscious (whatever one is aware of at a specific moment), Preconscious (material just beneath consciousness that can easily be retrieved), and Unconscious (thoughts, memories, and desires well below awareness that exert strong control over behavior).
Chapter 11: Defense Mechanisms Definition & Purpose
Unconscious self-deceptions constructed by the ego to protect a person from painful anxiety caused by internal conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
Chapter 11: Freud's Core Defense Mechanisms
Repression (pushing thoughts to unconscious), Projection (attributing own thoughts to others), Displacement (diverting feelings to secondary target), Reaction Formation (behaving opposite to true feelings), Regression (reverting to immature behavior patterns), Rationalization (creating false excuses), Identification (allying with another person/group), and Sublimation (channeling unwanted impulses into socially acceptable actions).