Social Psych Final Exam

Give examples of non-verbal communication (6)

Facial expressions, gestures, body posture & movement, touch, eye-gaze, tone of voice

Functions of non-verbal communication

• Express emotion

• Convey an attitude (i.e. approval)

• Communicate your personality (i.e. extroversion)

• Can sometimes contradict spoken words (i.e. sarcasm)

What are display rules in social perception?

Culturally determined rules that dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show. They include cultural norms regarding ideal affect—the emotions people want to feel (e.g., high-arousal excitement in Western cultures vs. low-arousal calmness in Eastern cultures)

What are emblems, and how do they function across cultures?

Non-verbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture and can directly substitute for verbal messages (e.g., the "OK" hand sign). Emblems vary significantly across different cultures and are not universal

What is the primacy effect in social perception?

The phenomenon where information presented first has a stronger impact on overall impression formation and judgment than information presented later

What is belief perseverance?

The tendency to stick with an initial belief or judgment even after the evidence supporting it has been contradicted or disproven

What is an analytic thinking style, and which cultures typically exhibit it?

A cognitive focus on the properties of objects or individuals without considering the surrounding context. It is predominant in Western individualistic cultures, leading observers to favor dispositional/internal explanations for behavior.

What is a holistic thinking style, and which cultures typically exhibit it?

A cognitive focus on the overall context and the relationships among objects or people. It is predominant in East Asian collectivist cultures, leading observers to place greater emphasis on situational factors when explaining behavior.

What is attribution theory?

An umbrella term for theoretical accounts describing how people infer the causes of events and behaviors around them, as well as the social and behavioral consequences of these causal assessments.

What is an internal attribution (dispositional attribution)?

Inferring that a person's behavior is caused by internal characteristics such as personality traits, motives, attitudes, or natural ability

What is an external attribution (situational attribution)?

Inferring that a person's behavior is caused by the situation, environmental pressures, or external circumstances

What is Harold Kelley's Covariation Model?

A theory stating that observers decide whether to make an internal or external attribution by examining how an actor's behavior "covaries" across time, place, actors, and targets using three types of information: Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency

What is consensus information in the Covariation Model?

Information regarding the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the target actor does

What is distinctiveness information in the Covariation Model?

Information regarding the extent to which one particular actor behaves the same way toward different stimuli or situations

What is consistency information in the Covariation Model?

Information regarding the extent to which the behavior between the same actor and the same stimulus is identical across time and circumstances

How do combinations of Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency produce Internal vs. External attributions?

• Internal Attribution: Low Consensus + Low Distinctiveness + High Consistency.

• External Attribution: High Consensus + High Distinctiveness + High Consistency.

What is perceptual salience, and how does it drive the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)?

The visual prominence or focus of attention on a person rather than the surrounding situation. Because the actor is perceptually salient, perceivers overestimate the actor's causal role and attribute their behavior to internal traits rather than environmental factors.

What are the steps in the two-step attribution process?

1. Step 1 (Automatic): Make an immediate internal attribution about the person

2. Step 2 (Controlled): Consciously adjust for the situational context, which requires time, mental energy, and motivation

What are self-serving attributions?

Explanations for one's own successes that credit internal, dispositional factors, and explanations for one's own failures that blame external, situational factors. This bias is more prevalent in Western individualistic cultures

What is the belief in a just world, and what is its main disadvantage?

A defensive attribution assuming that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get ("bad things happen to bad people"). While it helps individuals manage feelings of vulnerability, its major disadvantage is victim-blaming

What is the bias blind spot?

The tendency for people to recognize that attributional biases occur in human judgment, while believing that other people are more susceptible to these biases than they themselves are

What is the self-concept, and how does it function psychologically?

The overall knowledge and beliefs people hold about who they are. It contains ideas about our traits, values, feelings, memories, and social roles, functioning essentially as a self-schema

How does the self-concept develop from childhood to adulthood?

• Rudimentary Self-Concept: Realizing that the self is a distinct entity separate from others.

• Childhood Self-Concept: Concrete, referencing observable physical characteristics (age, gender, neighborhood, hobbies).

• Maturing Self-Concept: Shifts away from physical traits toward internal psychological states, personality characteristics, and how others evaluate us

What is an independent view of self, and in which cultural contexts is it common?

A way of defining oneself strictly in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, rather than in terms of others. It is prevalent in Western cultures, emphasizing uniqueness ("the squeaky wheel gets the grease")

What is an interdependent view of self, and in which cultural contexts is it common?

A way of defining oneself in terms of relationships to other people and recognizing that one's behavior is shaped by others' thoughts, feelings, and actions. It is prevalent in East Asian collectivist cultures, emphasizing connectedness ("the nail that stands out gets pounded down").

What is self-complexity theory, and why is high self-complexity beneficial?

Self-complexity refers to defining oneself across multiple distinct domains (e.g., student, athlete, friend, artist).

• High self-complexity: Buffers self-esteem against failure in any single domain, creating greater emotional resilience.

• Low self-complexity: Relies on very few central domains, making one highly vulnerable to stress or setbacks in those areas.

What is introspection, and how reliable is it for self-knowledge?

The process whereby people look inward to examine their own internal thoughts, feelings, and motives. People rely on introspection less often than assumed, and the true causes of feelings/behaviors frequently operate outside conscious awareness

What are causal theories, and how can they lead to mistaken self-inferences?

Culturally derived schemas or theories about what causes one's feelings and behaviors (e.g., "people are moody on Mondays"). Because these schemas are not always accurate, applying them can result in incorrect judgments regarding the actual causes of our actions

What is self-awareness theory?

The idea that when people turn attention inward onto themselves, they evaluate and compare their current behavior (actual self) against their internal values and standards (ideal self). Discrepancies between actual and ideal self produce discomfort, often driving people to alter their behavior or escape self-focus

What is the difference between Subjective Self-Awareness (SSA) and Objective Self-Awareness (OSA)?

• Subjective Self-Awareness (SSA): Attention is directed outward toward objects (self as subject/knower), such as during "flow" states.

• Objective Self-Awareness (OSA): Attention is directed inward upon the self as an object (self as known/me), triggered by mirrors, cameras, or audiences. OSA increases self-evaluation and attitude-consistent behavior

What is self-perception theory?

The theory that when internal attitudes, feelings, or states are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer them by observing our own outward behavior and the situation in which that behavior occurs

What are the two components of emotion according to the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion?

1. Experiencing physiological arousal.

2. Seeking an appropriate explanation or cognitive label for that arousal from the environment

What is misattribution of arousal?

The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to experience physiological arousal

Compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and explain the overjustification effect.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity out of genuine enjoyment or interest17.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity because of external rewards or pressures17.

• Overjustification Effect: When compelling extrinsic rewards cause people to underestimate how much their behavior was driven by intrinsic enjoyment

How do growth and fixed mindsets differ regarding intelligence and effort?

• Growth Mindset: Believing abilities/intelligence are malleable and develop through effort and practice; effort is viewed as learning.

• Fixed Mindset: Believing abilities are static traits that you either have or don't; effort is viewed as a sign of low natural ability

What is Social Comparison Theory, and how do upward vs. downward comparisons function?

The hypothesis that people evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others when objective standards are absent or uncertain

• Upward Social Comparison: Comparing to those who are superior (provides an accurate benchmark and motivates improvement, but can lower self-esteem).

• Downward Social Comparison: Comparing to those who are worse off (enhances self-esteem and validates accomplishments, but can breed complacency)

What are implementation intentions, and how do they aid self-control?

Specific "if-then" plans outlining exactly when, where, and how an individual will execute goal-directed behavior. Forming implementation intentions helps overcome self-control failures by making goal execution automatic.

What is impression management?

The conscious or unconscious effort by individuals to shape how they are perceived by others in social interactions.

What is self-handicapping, and why do people engage in it?

Creating obstacles or excuses for oneself in advance so that if failure occurs, it can be attributed to situational obstacles rather than a lack of personal ability.

What is ingratiation?

An impression management strategy using flattery, praise, or agreement to make oneself likable to another person, particularly someone of higher status.

What is conformity, and how do cultural views on it differ?

Conformity is a change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people. In Western individualistic cultures, conformity often carries a negative connotation, whereas in collectivist cultures, it is viewed more positively and shows higher rates

What is informational social influence, and when is it most likely to occur?

Conforming because we see others as a reliable source of information to guide our behavior, believing their interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours. It is most likely to occur when:

1. The situation is ambiguous

2. The situation is a crisis/emergency.

3. Other people are experts

What is the difference between private acceptance and public compliance?

• Private Acceptance: Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right (e.g., Sherif's autokinetic effect study).

• Public Compliance: Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what we are saying or doing

What is normative social influence, and why do people yield to it?

Going along with the group in order to be accepted, liked, or avoid rejection. It arises because humans are a social species who rely on others for emotional support and well-being; resisting group norms can lead to discussions, negative comments, or social exclusion

What is Latané's Social Impact Theory, and what three factors determine conformity to normative pressure?

The likelihood that a person will conform to social influence depends on three variables:

1. Strength: How important the group is to the person

2. Immediacy: How close the group is in time and space.

3. Number: How many people are in the group (though the impact of group size plateaus after around 3–4 people)

What is minority influence, and what conditions are required for a minority to change the majority's view?

The process by which a minority of group members alters the behavior or beliefs of the majority. To succeed, the minority must show consistency over time and maintain a cohesive "united front" without internal disagreement

What is the difference between injunctive norms and descriptive norms?

• Injunctive Norms: What people believe others approve or disapprove of (moral/social expectations)

• Descriptive Norms: What people actually do in a given situation regardless of approval

How does obedience differ from compliance?

• Obedience: Submitting to a request or command specifically coming from an authority figure (a person of higher status).

• Compliance: Submitting to a request coming from a peer or someone of equal/lower status.

What were the main findings of Stanley Milgram's classic obedience experiment, and how did they compare to initial predictions?

While psychiatrists predicted that less than 1% of participants would administer the maximum 450V shock, 65% of participants went all the way to the 450V ("XXX") level due to authority pressure

What psychological factors explain why participants obeyed in Milgram's experiment?

• Informational & Normative Influence: The situation was ambiguous, the experimenter was an expert, and participants feared disappointing authority

• Unassertive Disobedience: Stalling attempts were ignored by the experimenter's firm prods

• Release from Responsibility: Transferring moral blame onto the experimenter ("legitimate authority")

• Step-by-Step Involvement: Incremental increases (15V steps) created a "slippery slope" through anchoring and adjustment

What experimental variations significantly decreased obedience in Milgram's research?

• Tuning in the Victim: Bringing the "Learner" closer physically (same room or touching the Learner) dramatically reduced maximum shock delivery.

• Tuning out the Authority: Having the experimenter give instructions via phone, using an ordinary person as the experimenter, or having two experimenters disagree dropped obedience near zero

What is prejudice?

A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group

What is a stereotype?

A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members, regardless of actual variation among the members

What is discrimination?

An unjustified negative or harmful action toward members of a group simply because of their membership in that group

What is implicit bias, and how is it typically measured?

Biases that are automatic, unintentional, and difficult to control. They are measured through indirect tests like the Implicit Association Test (IAT) or the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP)

What is subtyping, and how does it protect existing stereotypes?

Explaining away exceptions to a stereotype by creating a distinct subcategory for disconfirming individuals. This allows people to maintain that their general stereotype remains correct overall while treating exceptions as isolated cases

How does a self-fulfilling prophecy operate in stereotyping?

When an observer's expectation about a group leads to preferential or differential treatment of a target, causing the target to act in ways that confirm the initial expectation

What is social identity threat (including stereotype threat)?

The anxiety and impaired performance experienced by members of a group when they feel they are being evaluated through the lens of a negative cultural stereotype

What is out-group homogeneity?

The perception that individuals in an out-group are "all the same," minimizing within-group differences for out-groups compared to the complex variations seen within one's in-group

What is ethnocentrism?

: The belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others, evaluating other social groups according to the standards of one's own in-group

What is in-group bias?

The tendency to give positive feelings, special treatment, and favorable resource allocations to people defined as part of one's in-group, while feeling indifference or negativity toward out-groups

What is Tajfel's Minimal Groups Paradigm?

An experimental procedure showing that even when people are randomly assigned to transparently arbitrary groups (e.g., "over-estimators" vs. "under-estimators"), they still demonstrate in-group favoritism and award more rewards to in-group members

What is institutional discrimination?

Practices and societal structures that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of ethnicity, gender, age, or sexual orientation

What causes people to blame the victim in instances of prejudice or trauma?

Driven by a defensive belief in a just world ("people get what they deserve"), observers attribute a victim's suffering to their own poor choices or internal flaws to protect themselves from feelings of vulnerability

What is Realistic Conflict Theory, and what classic study illustrated it?

The theory that limited resources lead to competition between groups, fostering prejudice and discrimination. Illustrated by Sherif's Robbers Cave study, where competing camp teams quickly developed hostility and fights

What is the Contact Hypothesis, and what 6 conditions are required to reduce prejudice?

The idea that intergroup contact reduces prejudice, provided 6 specific conditions are met:

1. Mutual interdependence

2. Common goal

3. Equal status

4. Friendly, informal setting

5. Knowing multiple out-group members

6. Social norms of equality

What is the Jigsaw Classroom technique?

A cooperative learning structure where students are placed in small, multi-ethnic groups and made mutually interdependent on one another to master and teach different pieces of an academic lesson