BIO II: Test 2 (Reproduction)

Reproduction

The biological process by which organisms produce new individuals of the same species, ensuring the continuation of genetic material across generations

Ways of Reproduction

Asexual & Sexual

Asexual Reproduction

a single-celled individual (ex. amoeba) is the sole parent and passes copies of all its genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes. Genetically Identical to the parent (clone)

Sexual Reproduction

two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents. offspring vary genetically from their siblings and both parents. Involves meiosis

Meiosis

process in which genetic material recombines (ex.chromosomes)

Invention of Sexual Reproduction

one cell copied itself and continued to multiply. ALL life was prokaryotic

Eukaryotic Cell

Contains a membrane-enclosed organelles and contains a nucleus

Prokaryotic Cell

Lacks a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles

Bacteria Reproduction

asexual binary fission

Transformation

uptake of “naked” DNA

Transduction

viruses carry bacterial DNA from one host to another (ex. genes A+ B+ turns into A+ B-)

Conjugation

advantageous gene travels through pilus from one cell to another

Conjugation and Plasmids

transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells

Binary Fission

asexual reproduction, splits into 2 genetically identical daughter cells

Protists

single-celled eukaryotes that are diverse and can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction

Volvox

colonial freshwater chlorophyte, daughter colonies produce asexually, conditions change and each colony produces gametes which then dies EXCEPT zygotes

Plants Reproduction

Asexual reproduction

Angiosperms

Flowering plant; sexually reproduces via fertilization, the seed being the embryo enclosed within an ovary or fruit

Vegetative

After germination the plant rapidly grows leaves and stems before it starts to flower

Vegetive propagation

Asexual reproduction, new plant grows from a stem, root, or leaf rather than from a seed

Coevolution

2 or more species reciprocally affects each others evolution through close ecological interactions with one another

Double fretizliation

Fusion of sperm and eggs and the fusion of secondary sperm and two polar nuclei creating endosperm of the seed

Endosperm

tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo in angiosperms, cotyledons (fleshy) nourish the embryo as it germinates

Germentation

breaks dormancy in a seed and sprouts

Monocot

divergent, contains one embryotic leaf or cotyledon

Eudicot

divergent, two embryotic leaf or cotyledon

Fertilization

egg and sperm meet and make a zygote

Gametes

haploid cell consisting of sperm and egg. NO haploid cell in fungi

Spores

Haploid (not category specific), starts via mitosis inside a tissue

Haploid

contains a single set of chromosomes, n=23

Diploid

contains two sets of chromosomes from each parent, 2n=46. Divides via mitosis

Mitosis

Cleavage

Process in which a zygote undergoes cell division producing separate cells (blastoderms) ultimately dividing individually. Forms a multicellular embryo

Cytoderms

Sea creatures (ex. starfish, sea urchins)

Birds & Fish

Animal pole: Does not chop up cytoplasm evenly creating incomplete cleavage

Amphibians & Mammals

Splits up cytoplasm evenly creating a cleavage; Amphibians (blastula),

Mammals (blastocyst)

Holoblastic

complete cleavage

Meroblastic

incomplete cleavage

Female Reproductive

Egg goes through the fallopian tubes to the oviduct, ovaries become developed when a fetus, cells get sequestered and through meiosis

Human oogenesis

Primary germ cell in embryo goes through the process of differentiation

Differentiation

cells undergo changes developing specialized structures and functions (ex. species that produce a lot of offsprings have more of a parental instinct than those who do not)

Spermatogenesis

haploid splits into diploid cells, continuously

Female glands

pituitary gland, secretes hormones (FSH, LH, etc.)

How are fungi similar?

Multicellular, photosynthetic, structural analogies from convergent evolution, alternation of generations (germophyte & sporophyte)

Major developments in the evolution of plants?

Plants originated from green algae, traits facilitating life on land appeared, diversity of plants occurred overtime (DIFFERENT from algae)

Diversity of plants

Alternation of generations, walled spores produced in sporangia (dispersal through dry air), waxy cuticle, position and structure of meristems

Spore VS gametes

Both haploids, gametes go through fusion in order to produce tissue, spores don’t go through fertilization but produces multiple tissue and an organism can be born

Fern

Dependent on water as it is needed for metabolic and transfer of the sperm

Sporangium

spores are produced

Vascular Tissue

plant is less dependent on water, grows taller and water travels up transfering off the leaf “pollinating” other plants

Nutrient cycling

Nitrogen fixation, decomposition

Nitrogen fixation

N₂ separates, becoming NO₃

Decomposition

breaks down dead material returning it back into the soil

Symbiotic & Mutualistic relationships

parasitic, endophyte, mycorrhizae and lichens

Mycorrhizae

Fungi; fungal hyphae penetrate into the cell wall of the plant group and sticks itself into the cell membrane (or next to), wrapping around the arbuscule (cell membrane)

Lichens

Fungi & algae symbiotic, substrate, provides anchoring and start of a global ecosystem

Mycelium

Network of hyphae, in soil or on top of soil, transportation (via diffusion)

Biscidia

Cap of a fungi, reproductive structure

Hyphae

Adaption to predatory behavior, where enzymes get released and absorbs the continents of their prey

Gills

spore producing structure

Cell wall in a fungi?

Chitin

Absorptive heterotroph

Are all fungi multicellular?

Yes, EXCEPT yeast