Psychology Comprehensive Review: Neuroscience, Perception, Research, Cognition, and Foundations

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering behavioral neuroscience, sensation and perception, research methodology and statistics, cognitive psychology and learning, social psychology, developmental psychology, personality and clinical psychology, and historical foundations.

Broca's Area

Region in the left frontal lobe that handles speech production; damage results in expressive or motor aphasia.

Wernicke's Area

Region in the left temporal lobe that handles speech comprehension; damage results in receptive or sensory fluent aphasia.

Visual Pathways (Left Visual Field)

Pathway wherein stimuli in the left visual field fall on the right side of both retinas and project entirely to the right hemisphere's visual cortex via the optic chiasm.

Split-Brain Patients (Gazzaniga & Sperry)

Patients who, when an object is flashed in the left visual field, cannot name it because language is in the left hemisphere, but can draw or retrieve it using their left hand controlled by the right hemisphere.

Hippocampus

Limbic system structure responsible for the consolidation of new explicit/declarative memories.

Amygdala

Limbic system structure responsible for emotional processing, specifically fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

Limbic system structure regulating the "4 Fs" (Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, Mating) and directing the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in motor movement and memory; a deficit in the hippocampus is heavily linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in reward/pleasure pathways and motor control; an excess is linked to Schizophrenia, while a deficit is linked to Parkinson's disease.

Action Potential Steps

Four-step electrical sequence: 1. Resting potential at $-70\,\text{mV}$ (inside negative); 2. Depolarization where $\text{Na}^+$ channels open and rush in ($+40\,\text{mV}$); 3. Repolarization where $\text{K}^+$ channels open and rush out; 4. Hyperpolarization where cell potential briefly drops below $-70\,\text{mV}$ before resetting.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic division responsible for "Fight or Flight" responses, which dilates pupils, accelerates heart rate, and inhibits digestion.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic division responsible for "Rest and Digest" responses, which constricts pupils, slows heart rate, and stimulates digestion.

Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)

Theory asserting that photoreceptors (cones) respond to Red, Green, and Blue at the retinal level.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory asserting that visual cells process colors in complementary pairs (Red-Green, Blue-Yellow, Black-White) in the LGN/visual cortex, explaining afterimages.

Rods

Photoreceptors located in the periphery of the retina with high sensitivity to light, specialized for black and white peripheral vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors concentrated in the fovea providing high acuity/detail and color vision.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues perceived with one eye: Linear Perspective (parallel lines converge), Relative Size (closer objects appear larger), Interposition/Occlusion (blocking objects are closer), and Motion Parallax (closer objects appear to move faster than distant objects).

Signal Detection Theory Matrix

Decision framework classifying four outcomes: Hit (signal present, user says Yes), Miss (signal present, user says No), False Alarm (signal absent, user says Yes), and Correct Rejection (signal absent, user says No).

Weber's Law

Principle stating that the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) is a constant proportion, not a constant amount, of the original stimulus intensity ($\frac{\Delta I}{I} = k$).

Place Theory

Auditory theory stating we perceive pitch based on where the basilar membrane vibrates; most accurate for high frequencies.

Frequency Theory

Auditory theory stating we perceive pitch based on the rate at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates; most accurate for low frequencies.

Internal Validity

The degree to which an experiment can establish a causal relationship by minimizing confounding variables.

External Validity

The degree to which the results of an investigation can be generalized to the real world.

True Experiment

Research design requiring random assignment of participants to conditions to manipulate the independent variable.

Quasi-Experiment

Research design relying on pre-existing, non-random groups (e.g., comparing smokers vs. non-smokers or males vs. females).

Type I Error ($\alpha$)

A false positive statistical error occurring when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

Type II Error ($\beta$)

A false negative statistical error occurring when the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false.

t-test

Inferential statistical test used to compare the means of exactly two groups.

ANOVA (F-test)

Inferential statistical test used to compare the means of three or more groups or levels.

Positive Skew

Asymmetrical distribution where the tail points to the right toward high numbers, resulting in $\text{Mode} < \text{Median} < \text{Mean}$.

Negative Skew

Asymmetrical distribution where the tail points to the left toward low numbers, resulting in $\text{Mean} < \text{Median} < \text{Mode}$.

Construct Validity

Psychometric property evaluating whether a test genuinely measures the abstract variable it claims to measure (e.g., intelligence).

Content Validity

Psychometric property evaluating whether a test reflects the entire domain of material it is intended to cover.

Reinforcement Schedules (Operant Conditioning)

Four schedules: Fixed-Ratio (reward after set number of responses; high pause-burst), Variable-Ratio (reward after unpredictable number of responses; highest resistance to extinction), Fixed-Interval (reward after set time; scalloped pattern), and Variable-Interval (reward after unpredictable time; steady, moderate response).

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The decrease in a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response (CR) following a rest period.

Proactive Interference

Memory disruption occurring when previously learned, old information prevents the retrieval of newly learned information.

Retroactive Interference

Memory disruption occurring when newly acquired information blocks the retrieval of previously learned, old information.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memories processed by the hippocampus, encompassing Semantic memory (facts) and Episodic memory (life events).

Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory

Unconscious memories processed by the cerebellum and basal ganglia, including Procedural memory (motor skills) and Classical conditioning.

Availability Heuristic

Mental shortcut where probability is estimated based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing shark attacks due to news coverage).

Representativeness Heuristic

Mental shortcut where probability is estimated based on how well an item matches an existing prototype or stereotype (e.g., assuming a quiet individual is a librarian).

Asch Conformity Study

Line-judgment experiment showing that $37\%$ of participants conformed to an obviously erroneous group consensus.

Milgram Obedience Experiment

Shock generator experiment demonstrating that $65\%$ of participants administered the maximum $450\text{-volt}$ shock under pressure from an authority figure.

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

Study on deindividuation that had to be aborted early because assigned roles rapidly altered social behavior.

Bystander Effect & Diffusion of Responsibility

Phenomenon where the likelihood of any single bystander helping decreases as group size increases because the perceived obligation to act is diluted across the crowd (Darley & Latané).

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The cognitive tendency to overestimate internal/dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when evaluating others' actions.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own negative behaviors to situational factors while attributing the same behaviors in others to their internal character.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)

Psychological discomfort experienced when holding contradictory beliefs or when behavior conflicts with beliefs, resolved by changing attitudes to align with actions.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to shift members' attitudes toward a more extreme version of their pre-existing opinions.

Groupthink (Janis)

The mode of thinking in which the desire for harmony within a decision-making group overrides realistic evaluation of alternatives.

Social Facilitation

Tendency for the presence of others to improve performance on simple or well-learned tasks, while impairing performance on complex tasks.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively in a group compared to working individually.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages

Developmental stages: 1. Sensorimotor ($0\text{--}2$: object permanence, stranger anxiety); 2. Preoperational ($2\text{--}7$: egocentrism, centration, lack of conservation); 3. Concrete Operational ($7\text{--}11$: conservation achieved, logical thinking on concrete objects); 4. Formal Operational ($12+$: abstract, hypothetical, deductive reasoning).

Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles

Strange Situation categories: Secure (distressed when parent leaves, easily comforted upon return), Insecure-Avoidant (unfazed by departure, avoids parent upon return), and Insecure-Anxious/Ambivalent (intensely distressed by departure, clings and exhibits anger upon return).

Baumrind's Parenting Styles

Parenting classifications: Authoritative (high warmth, high control; optimal outcome), Authoritarian (low warmth, high control), Permissive (high warmth, low control), and Neglectful (low warmth, low control).

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages

Moral progression: Preconventional (guided by self-interest, punishment, and reward), Conventional (guided by social approval, laws, and duty), and Postconventional (guided by abstract ethical principles and universal human rights).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotskian concept defining the distance between what a child can achieve independently and what they can accomplish with assistance.

Scaffolding

Temporary pedagogical support provided by a "More Knowledgeable Other" tailored to a child's current developmental ability.

The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

Personality model consisting of Openness (creative vs. conventional), Conscientiousness (organized vs. careless), Extraversion (sociable vs. reserved), Agreeableness (trusting vs. suspicious), and Neuroticism (anxious/unstable vs. calm/stable).

Freud's Structural Model

Tripartite personality structure comprising the Id (pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle), and Superego (morality principle).

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Freud)

Protective strategies including Repression (banishing thoughts to the unconscious), Projection (attributing unacceptable impulses to others), and Reaction Formation (switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites).

Schizophrenia Symptoms (Positive vs. Negative)

Positive symptoms (excesses) include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech; negative symptoms (deficits) include flat affect, alogia, avolition, and anhedonia.

Major Therapeutic Orientations

Approaches to therapy: Psychoanalysis (unconscious exploration via free association and resistance), Behavioral (learning-based; systematic desensitization, token economies), Cognitive (Beck/Ellis; alters irrational thought patterns), and Humanistic (Rogers; client-centered, unconditional positive regard, empathy).

Bipolar I Disorder

Mood disorder requiring at least one full manic episode involving severe impairment or hospitalization; major depressive episodes are common but not required for diagnosis.

Bipolar II Disorder

Mood disorder requiring at least one hypomanic episode (less severe, no hospitalization) accompanied by at least one major depressive episode.

Wilhelm Wundt & Structuralism

Founder who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in $1879$, using introspection to deconstruct conscious experience into its basic components.

William James & Functionalism

Author of Principles of Psychology who studied how mental and behavioral processes function to enable organisms to adapt and survive.

Behaviorism (Watson & Skinner)

School of psychology that rejected introspection and the study of the mind, restricting psychological study strictly to objective, observable, and measurable behavior.

Reliability

The consistency of a psychological measure across evaluations, including test-retest, inter-rater, and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha).

Validity

The accuracy of a measurement tool in assessing what it is intended to measure

Flynn Effect

The steady increase in average population IQ scores observed across successive generations, necessitating the periodic re-standardization of intelligence tests.