Art History Rome Exam 1

Romulus-Ancient Rome

mythological founder of Rome, 8th century BCE

Julius Caesar-Ancient Rome

dictator at the end of the Roman Republic; 1st century BCE

Augustus-Ancient Rome

first Roman emperor;1st century BCE-1st century CE

Flavian Emperors-Ancient Rome

Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, 1st century CE

Trajan-Ancient Rome

emperor (1);2nd century CE

Hadrian-Ancient Rome

emperor (2);2nd century CE

Constantine-Ancient Rome

emperor;4th century CE

Vitruvius-Ancient Rome

architect and writer on architectural theory; 1st century BCE

Apollodorus of Damascus- Ancient Rome

architect and engineer;2nd century CE

Cosmati-Medieval

family of artists and craftsmen active in Rome, particularly in the 12th-13th centuries

Martin V Colonna- Renaissance

pope, 1417-1431

Paul II Barbo-Renaissance

pope, 1464-1471

Sixtus IV Della Rovere-Renaissance

pope, 1471-1484

Julius II Della Rovere-Renaissance

pope, 1503-1513

Leo X Medici-Renaissance

pope, 1513-1521

Paul III Farnese-Renaissance

pope, 1534-1549

Leon Battista Alberti-Renaissance

architect and author of De Re Aedificatoria, 1404-1472

Bramante (Renaissance)

architect, 1444-1514

Michelangelo (Renaissance)

artist, architect, sculptor, and Renaissance master, 1475-1564

Raphael (Renaissance)

painter and later architect, 1483-1520

Reformation

visual art created in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries in response to the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

1517

Counter-Reformation

emerged as the Roman Catholic Church's visual and ideological response to the Protestant Reformation. Mandated and shaped largely by the Council of Trent

1545-1563

Council of Trent

19th ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held in Trent, Northern Italy, to address the Protestant Reformation and enact internal reforms (1545–1563)

Ancient Rome

Eras→ kingdom, republic, and empire

Development and acceptance of Christianity

313 CE- Edict of Milan and legalization/toleration of Christianity

Medievial

approx. late/6th/early 7th century CE to the mid 1300s

Renaissance

approx. 1400s to the late 1500s (late 1520s onwards last part is more correct to define as Mannerism)

Palazzo della Cancelleria

15th-16th century

patron→ cardinal Raffaele Riario

travertine, marble and spolia facade

-monumental bridge between the Renaissance and antiquity, widely celebrated as the first palace in Rome built entirely ex novo (from the ground up) in the High Renaissance style.

Palazzo della Cancelleria Plan

Palazzo della Cancelleria Facade

Palazzo della Cancelleria Courtyard

Palazzo Venezia

15th century

Patron: Pope Paul II

Leon Battista Alberti is associated with the building, although his precise role is uncertain.

Travertine limestone, brick, and wood

maintained its medieval-Renaissance fortress appearance; its architectural footprint and structural layout underwent massive transformations in the late 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries to accommodate modern urban planning, national politics, and subways

Palazzo Venezia Plan

Palazzo Venezia Courtyard

Piazza and Palazzo Farnese

16th century

architects -Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Michelangelo, Giacomo della Porta

Patron: Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who was elected pope as Paul III in 1534

travertine limestone, brick, and ancient Egyptian granite

direct material manifestation of how Renaissance patrons weaponized the ancient Roman past to legitimize their own contemporary power

Piazza and Palazzo Farnese Facade

Palazzo Farnese Plan

Piazza Farnese

Via Guilia definition

Commissioned by Pope Julius II Della Rovere

Designed/planned by Donato Bramante

one of the earliest and most radical examples of deliberate urban planning, modernization, and political propaganda in Renaissance Rome

via giulia

ponte sisto definition

Built 1473–1479

Architect: Baccio Pontelli

Commissioned by Pope Sixtus IV Della Rovere

Volcanic tuff, travertine limestone, and Carrara marble

Monumental catalyst for the development and physical movement of people, goods, and water through Renaissance Rome. By bridging the Tiber River for the first time since antiquity, it broke a major geographic bottleneck and permanently altered the city’s economic, religious, and political landscape.

Ponte sisto

Sistine Chapel Definition

Built: 1473–1481

Architect: Baccio Pontelli

Patron: Pope Sixtus IV Della Rovere

Renaissance

During the reign of Sixtus IV: frescoes by Botticelli, Perugino, Ghirlandaio, and others, depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, with papal portraits above and frescoed drapery below.

Original ceiling: blue with gold stars.

These frescoes were completed in 1482.

Ceiling by Michelangelo, painted between 1508 and 1512, under Pope Julius II Della Rovere.

Between 1535 and 1541, Michelangelo painted The Last Judgment. The two popes associated with this project were Clement VII and Paul III Farnese; Paul III was the pope who commissioned and oversaw the completion of the project

Sistine Chapel Exterior

Sistine Chapel Fresco Life of Moses

Sistine Chapel Interior

Sistine Chapel life of Christ Fresco

Sistine Chapel Ceiling

Michaelangelo

Lateran Bapistry Definition

5th century CE

stands as the absolute blueprint and archetype for all monumental baptismal architecture across the Christian world.

Initially founded in the early 4th century by Emperor Constantine and radically reconstructed in the 5th century by Pope Sixtus III, this architectural marvel represents the literal material pivot point where Late Antique imperial opulence was refashioned into Early Christian and Medieval religious authority.

Its structure relies on a highly symbolic and strategic palette of imperial porphyry, green basalt, brick, and lead-tin bronze

Lateran Bapistry Interior

Lateran Bapistry Exterior

Lateran area in general

mirrors the broader urban development and modernization of the entire Lateran District. Located on the Caelian Hill right against the Aurelian Walls, the Lateran area was transformed from a peripheral, heavily militarized Roman boundary into the sprawling, monumental ground zero of worldwide Christian authority

Layered Timelines: The Baptistery acts as an architectural time capsule, seamlessly integrating Constantinian foundations, Medieval chapels/mosaics, Early Baroque facades, and Baroque fresco cycles.

Symbolic Materials: The interior centers around a rare green basalt immersion font and an octagonal ring of imperial red porphyry columns to signal the triumph of Christianity over pagan Rome.

The Lateran Shift: The area evolved from an elite Roman cavalry fort into the global headquarters of the papacy (Patriarchium) and the vital entry axis for southern agricultural trade.

Baroque Master Plan: Pope Sixtus V completely modernized the district, erasing the medieval ruins to erect a geometric square anchored by the monumental Lateran Obelisk and straight, connecting pilgrimage avenues

Cathedral of Saint John Lateran

originally 4th century CE, under constantine

Cathedral of Saint John Lateran Interior

Cathedral of Saint John Lateran Exterior

Scala Santa defintion

Holy Stairs) is a sanctuary in Rome, Italy, consisting of 28 white marble steps that—according to Christian tradition—were climbed by Jesus Christ during his trial in the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem before his crucifixion

Scala Santa

Sancta Sanctorum definition

is the historic private chapel of the popes, located at the top of the Holy Stairs near Rome's Lateran Basilica.

Core Significance

• Sole Survivor: It is the only intact room remaining from the original medieval Lateran Palace.

• Sacred Relics: It earned its name by housing Rome's most sacred relics, including the heads of Saints Peter and Paul.

• Holy Icon: It houses the Acheiropoieta, a 5th-century icon of Christ traditionally believed to be "not made by human hands" but painted by Saint Luke and an angel.

• Pilgrimage Goal: It remains one of Catholicism's most revered sanctuaries, visited by pilgrims who climb the Holy Stairs on their knees.

Sancta Sanctorum

San Clemente definiton

• Top Level (12th Century AD): A functioning medieval Romanesque basilica featuring golden apse mosaics and Cosmatesque marble floors.

• Middle Level (4th Century AD): An early Christian church buried in the 12th century, containing ancient frescoes and the tomb of Saint Cyril.

• Bottom Level (1st–3rd Century AD): A complex of Ancient Roman buildings, including an industrial warehouse/mint and a pagan Mithraeum (a cavernous temple dedicated to the mystery cult of Mithras)

San Clemente Top Level

San Clemente Middle Level

San Clemente Bottom Level

Temple of Portunus

reupublican

Greek and Etruscan styles. It features a high Etruscan-style podium with a front staircase, alongside Greek-style Ionic columns. The columns along the sides are attached directly to the wall, a distinct Roman style known as pseudoperipteral.

Temple of Hercules Olivarius

republican

Oldest surviving marble building in Rome

• It is a unique monopteros—a circular temple surrounded by a colonnade of 20 Corinthian columns. It was heavily inspired by classical Greek temple design, constructed almost entirely from expensive Greek Pentelic marble.

theatre of marcellus

late republican and early imperial

Started by Julius Caesar, it was completed by Emperor Augustus in 13 BCE and dedicated to his favorite nephew and son-in-law, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who died young.

an ancient open-air theater in Rome that served as the primary architectural blueprint for the Colosseum

porticus of octavia

early imperial

an ancient Roman monumental complex located in the heart of Rome’s historic Jewish Ghetto

Built originally in the 2nd century BCE, it was completely rebuilt and expanded by Emperor Augustus between 27–23 BCE. He dedicated it to his beloved older sister

Pantheon Phase 1 definition

2nd century CE under hadrian

27 BC (Agrippa's Phase): Originally built as a rectangular/circular temple to all gods by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Emperor Augustu

Pantheon Phase 2 definition

80 AD & 110 AD (Fire & Reconstruction Phases): The original building burned down in 80 AD, was rebuilt by Domitian, and then burned down a second time during a massive fire in 110 AD

Pantheon Phase 3 definition

118–125 AD (Hadrian’s Rebuilding Phase): Emperor Hadrian completely rebuilt the Pantheon into its current iconic domed structure, keeping Agrippa's original inscription on the facade

609 AD (Christianization Phase): Consecrated as a Christian church (Basilica of St. Mary and the Martyrs) by Pope Boniface IV

Pantheon Phase 4

17th Century & Renaissance/Modern Modifications: Pope Urban VIII removed bronze from the portico roof (1625), lightning struck the dome in 1747, and it became a royal burial site for Italian kings (such as Victor Emmanuel II in 1892

Pantheon Phase 1

Pantheon Phase 2

Pantheon Phase 3

Pantheon Phase 4

Circus Maximus definiton

• Regal Period (6th c. BCE): Founded by Etruscan kings as a simple turf track for religious games and early political gathering.

• Republican Period (509–27 BCE): Built up into a formal hippodrome layout, adding the spina (central barrier), turning posts, and wooden seating used by magistrates to win public favor.

• Imperial Period (27 BCE–6th c. CE): Rebuilt in stone and concrete to hold 150,000+ spectators. It became the ultimate venue for "bread and circuses," featuring rigid class-segregated seating, Egyptian obelisks, and intense chariot-race rivalries before closing c. 550 CE.

Circus Maximus Regal Period

Circus Maximus Republican Period

Circus Maximus Imperial period

Basilica (past uses)

• Law Courts: The apse at the end of the building housed a raised tribunal where magistrates presided over legal trials. [1, 2]

• Commerce and Business: Merchants, bankers, and traders used the vast interior hall for financial transactions, contracts, and market activities. [1, 2]

• Public Assemblies: Citizens gathered for civic meetings, public discussions, and governmental administrative tasks. [1, 2]

• General Shelter: The wide covered halls and colonnaded side aisles provided a protected public space away from the sun or rain. [1]

• Imperial Audiences: Under the later Roman Empire, some basilicas served as grand audience halls or throne rooms for rulers and officials

Apollodorus of Damascus definition

an architect and engineer from Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century AD. As an architect he authored several technical treatises, and his massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time

Tuscan

The simplest and solid-looking order, adapted from Etruscan models. It features an unfluted shaft, a plain capital and base, and a heavy, robust appearance (roughly 7 diameters high)

Doric

base and sometimes an unfluted or smoother shaft. It is characterized by a plain, cushion-like capital (echinus and abacus) and a frieze decorated with alternating triglyphs and metope

Ionic

It is easily recognized by its capital featuring twin spiral scrolls (volutes) and a base with convex moldings. The column is typically about 9 diameters high

Corinthian

The most ornate and slender of the traditional orders (about 10 diameters high). Its distinct capital is carved with two staggered rows of acanthus leaves topped with small scrolls

Composite

The most elaborate and decorative hybrid order. It merges the large corner volutes of the Ionic capital with the sprawling acanthus leaves of the Corinthian capita

Tiber Island

republican

is historically significant as Rome’s only natural urban island in the Tiber River, celebrated for over two millennia as a center of healing, ancient mythology, and continuous medical care

Temple of Aesculapius definition

1785–1792 by the architects Antonio Asprucci and Mario Asprucci (with artist Cristoforo Unterperger), as a romantic landscape feature

Built in the Ionic order with a prostyle colonnade, a triangular tympanum with stucco reliefs

Temple of Aesculapius

Main building materials

a combination of revolutionary engineering composites, local stones, and imported luxury finishe

1. Roman Concrete

2. Fired Red Brick

3. Travertine Limestone:

4. Tuff (Tufa)

5. Marble Veneers and Columns:

6. Timber and Terracotta:

Main building techniques

Opus Quadratum: The oldest method, using large, squared blocks of stone (like tuff or travertine) stacked in regular horizontal courses without mortar. They relied on sheer weight and metal iron clamps for stability.

Opus Incertum: Developed as concrete became popular. Builders placed small, irregular, undressed stones into a thick concrete core, creating an uneven and random surface appearance.

Opus Reticulatum: A highly organized evolution of opus incertum. Diamond-shaped tufa stones were driven into a concrete core, creating a crisp, diagonal grid network that looked like a fishnet.

Opus Testaceum (or Latericium): The dominant technique of the Empire. It involved facing concrete walls with triangular or thin rectangular fired bricks, which bonded tightly to the core and provided maximum strength.

Opus Mixtum: A late-imperial technique that combined alternating bands of brick rows with layers of squared stone blocks (opus vittatum) to save on costs and create visual variety.

The True Arch and Vault: A monumental engine

Medusas head Capitoline Museum

Bernini

1644 and 1648

white marble

Palazzo dei conservatori

Venus of the Esquiline , Capitoline Museum

unknown sculptor, it is a 1st century CE copy

Constantine Statue Face

Constantine statue hand

Constantine orignal..? Capitoline Museum

Hall of emperors Capitoline Museums

This grand room displays a chronological gallery of 67 ancient Roman portraits

Hadrianic and Antonine Stylization: Highlights Hadrian and Marcus Aureliu

The "Fonseca Bust’

Flavian Realism:

Julio-Claudian Classical Idealism:

Hall of philosophers Capitoline Museums

Conceived alongside the imperial gallery, this room houses 79 busts and herms depicting the intellectual icons of antiquity, including Greek and Roman poets, philosophers, rhetoricians, and men of letters

• homer, socrates, epicurus andd metrodorus, literary giants

Masterpieces Capitoline Museums

Bust of Commodus as Hercules:

The Capitoline Brutus:

The Colossus of Constantine:

Bust of Medusa by Bernini:

Spinarium

Marcius (or Martius). According to the tale, he ran barefoot across 70 kilometers from Vitorchiano to Rome to deliver an urgent warning about an invading Etruscan army, only stopping to remove the agonizing thorn after his crucial mission was completed.\

Pope Sixtus IV donated it to the Roman people alongside the iconic Capitoline She-Wolf

Dated to the 1st century BC, it is an eclectic masterpiece. It seamlessly blends a highly realistic Hellenistic body posture (3rd–2nd century BC style) with a head sculpted in a classical Greek severe style (5th century BC style)

Capitoline Brutus

In the 16th century, antiquarians linked the sculpture to Lucius Junius Brutus, the legendary founder and first consul of the Roman Republic, based on perceived stylistic resemblances to coin profiles minted by Marcus Junius Brutus.

Typically dated to the late 4th to early 3rd century BCE (with some scholarship suggesting a later Hellenistic or Republican period