eng midterm 10/27

Toulmin model

• Claim: The main point the speaker wants you to believe.

• Grounds: The facts or evidence supporting the claim.

• Warrant: The reasoning that connects the grounds to the claim.

• Backing: Extra support that makes the warrant more believable.

Ambiguity

Using one word in two different ways

Ad Antiquitam

Saying something is right or good because it is old or traditional

Ad Baculum

Using a threat to win an argument

Ad Crumenam

Assuming a wealthy person must be right

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person instead of answering their argument

Ad Ignorantiam

Saying a claim is true because it has not been disproven

Ad Misericordiam

Using pity instead of relevant evidence

Ad Nauseam

Repeating a claim until people believe it

Ad Numeram

Saying something is true because many people believe it

Petitio Principii

Begging the question; using the claim as its own proof

Composition

Assuming what is true of each part must be true of the whole

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

Assuming that because one event came first, it caused the next

Division

Assuming what is true of the whole must be true of each part

Plurium Interrogationum

Asking a complicated or loaded question that traps someone

Straw Man

Changing someone’s argument into a weaker one, then attacking it

Guilt by Association

Saying an idea is bad because a bad person supports it

Tu Quoque

Saying someone’s wrong action is okay because someone else did something wrong too

argument by definition

The definition needs to be accurate, and the example needs to fit the definition.

Sophists and the Socratic Approach

• Sophists: Teachers who taught skills like public speaking and persuasion. They were often focused on winning arguments.

• Socrates and the Socratic approach: Used questions to examine ideas and search for truth.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge—what we know and how we know it.

Example evidence

A specific case used to support a point.

Enthymeme:

An argument with an unstated assumption that the audience is expected to fill in

Phronesis

Practical wisdom; knowing how to make good choices in real situations.

Techne

A skill or craft; knowing how to make or do something.

Sophia

Theoretical wisdom; understanding deep or general truths

Ethos

An appeal based on the speaker’s credibility or character.

Logos:

An appeal based on reasoning and evidence.

Pathos

An appeal to the audience’s emotions.