psych unit2

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to our environment.

Bottom-up processing

An approach where perception starts with sensory input and works up to the brain's integration of this information.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, drawing on experience and expectations to construct perceptions.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to mentally fill in gaps in a visual image to perceive objects as wholes.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Proximity

The perceptual tendency to group together visual and auditory events that are near each other.

Similarity

The perceptual tendency to group together elements that seem alike.

Attention

The focusing of mental resources on select information.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular depth cues

Requires both eyes to see depth and distance

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular depth cues

Use one eye to percieve depth and distance

Relative clarity

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are seen as farther away than sharp, clear objects.

Relative size

A monocular cue that allows determining the closeness of objects to an object of known size.

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where the texture of nearby objects is detailed, while objects farther away have a smoother texture

Linear perspective

Monocular cue; Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Aptitude tests

Tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Fixed mindset

The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change.

Growth mindset

The belief that one's skills and qualities can change and improve through effort and dedication.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare.'

Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

Semantic memory

Memory for factual information.

Implicit memory

unconcious and automatic recall of info

Procedural memory

A type of long-term and implicit memory of how to perform different actions and skills.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time.

Long-term potentiation

An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Strengthens synapses through repeated activiation

Working memory

Type of short-term memory; temporarily holds and uses incoming auditory and spacial info alongside long term-memory

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Phonological loop

The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The part of working memory that holds visual and spatial information.

Multi-store model

A model of memory that suggests information is processed in three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The immediate, brief storage of sensory information

Iconic memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly stores visual info for a couple of miliseconds

Echoic memory

Type of sensory memory that stores auditory info for 3-4 seconds; allows processing of language and audio

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (15-30s) before the information is stored or forgotten. Has a capacity of up to 7 items

Long-Term Memory

Stores permanent and lasting memories with an unlimited capacity

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

1st stage of memory; info is converted into a form that the brain can process and store; extracting meaning

Storage

2nd stage of memory; The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

3rd stage of memory; getting information out of memory storage and into concious awareness

Levels of processing model

The theory that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memories

Shallow encoding

Processing information based on its surface characteristics.

Deep encoding

Processing information based on its meaning and the significance of the information.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that connect info with images, patterns, or rhymes

Method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves imagining placing items around a room or along a route.

Chunking-Grouping

Organizing items into bigger, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Categories-Grouping

Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.

Hierarchies-Grouping

Organizing items into a hierarchy, starting with general categories and working down to specific examples.

Spacing effect “Distributed Practice”

Phenomenon where short study sessions spread out over time yields better memory retention

Massed practice

Cramming information all at once in long intenstive periods without significant breaks

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember information that is presented last.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by giving it meaning or connecting it to prior learning

Autobiographical memory

Recalling past experiences while integrating episodic and semantic memory together; factual details and emotions

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from before ages 3-4

Recall

Retrieving learned info without any cues

Recognition

Memory retrievel where one identifies info using cues

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory.

Context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

State-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., drunk, sober) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

The forgetting curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

Encoding failure

The failure to process information into memory.

Proactive interference

Past learning prevents the recall of new information.

Retroactive interference

New learning prevents the recall of old information.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Feeling like you know something but you cant remember it

Repression

The basic defense mechanism that block anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Source amnesia

Recalling learned info, but not where you learned it

Constructive memory

The process by which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events.

Imagination inflation

The increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event.

Prototypes

Mental image or best example of a category.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb to simplify decision-making.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how similar something is to a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often one that has worked in the past.

Priming

The activation of associations in memory to influence behavior or perception.

Framing

The way information is presented, influencing decisions and judgments.

Gambler's fallacy

Belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events despite being independent instances

Sunk-cost fallacy

Sticking to an endeavor once an investment in money, time, or effort has been made.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes like planning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Generating many possible solutions to a problem.