APES Unit B

What is the difference between temperature and thermal energy?

Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of moving particles (heat), while temperature measures the average kinetic energy of those moving particles[cite: 2].

What are the phases of matter and how do they change with heat energy?

The phases are solid, liquid, gas, and plasma[cite: 2]. Adding heat causes melting (solid to liquid), vaporization (liquid to gas), and ionization (gas to plasma), while removing heat causes condensation, freezing, and deposition[cite: 2].

What are the exact names and spellings of all the key elements required for APES (H, C, N, O, F, Na, Al, P, Cl, K, Ca, As, Cd, Hg, Pb, U)?

H = Hydrogen, C = Carbon, N = Nitrogen, O = Oxygen, F = Fluorine, Na = Sodium, Al = Aluminum, P = Phosphorus, Cl = Chlorine, K = Potassium, Ca = Calcium, As = Arsenic, Cd = Cadmium, Hg = Mercury, Pb = Lead, and U = Uranium[cite: 1, 2].

What are the full names and chemical formulas of the key chemical compounds to memorize (CO2, CH4, SO2, H2SO4, NH3, H2CO3)?

CO2 = Carbon dioxide, CH4 = Methane, SO2 = Sulfur dioxide, H2SO4 = Sulfuric acid, NH3 = Ammonia, and H2CO3 = Carbonic acid[cite: 1, 2].

What are the full names of the Key Ions Cations(NH4+) and Anions(NO2-, NO3-, PO4³) to know for the test(Other: H+, Cl-, Na_, OH-, Ca2+, SO4², Al3+)?

Cation: NH4+ = Ammonium. Anions: NO2- = Nitrite, NO3- = Nitrate, and PO4³- = Phosphate. Additional key ions include H+ (hydrogen ion), Cl- (chloride ion), Na+ (sodium ion), OH- (hydroxide ion), Ca2+ (calcium ion), SO4^2- (sulfate ion), and Al3+ (aluminum ion)[cite: 1, 2].

What is the difference between organic carbon and inorganic carbon, and what are hydrocarbons?

Organic carbon compounds usually contain C-H and C-C covalent bonds and are/were components of living things (such as biological macromolecules and fossil fuels). Inorganic carbon lacks these structural features (such as carbon dioxide, diamond, graphite, and frozen CO2)[cite: 1, 2]. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.

Describe the chemical reaction that happens when hydrocarbons burn (combustion).

Combustion is the burning of organic compounds in the presence of oxygen, which always releases energy, carbon dioxide, and water: Organic Compound + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + Energy (e.g., CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O)[cite: 1, 2].

What is the difference between mass and weight?

Mass is the amount of matter in an object, whereas weight is the force exerted on that mass by gravity[cite: 2].

What are the three main forms of energy?

1) Kinetic Energy (energy of movement, including thermal, mechanical, electrical, and magnetic energy); 2) Potential Energy (stored energy, including chemical, elastic, nuclear, and gravitational energy); 3) Radiant/Electromagnetic (EM) Energy[cite: 2].

What is the difference between high-quality energy and low-quality energy?

High-quality energy is concentrated, useful, and has a high energy content (e.g., electricity, high-grade fuel). Low-quality energy is diffuse, hard to collect and use, and has a low energy content (e.g., diffuse heat/infrared radiation in the environment)[cite: 2].

How does the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum vary by wavelength and energy?

Shorter wavelengths (such as gamma rays and X-rays) have higher frequency and higher energy. Longer wavelengths (such as radio waves and microwaves) have lower frequency and lower energy[cite: 2].

What is the 1st Law of Thermodynamics?

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another[cite: 2].

What is the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics?

During any energy conversion, high-quality energy is always partially converted into lower-quality energy (such as diffuse heat), meaning 100% energy efficiency is impossible[cite: 2].

How does heat transfer via conduction, convection, and radiation?

Conduction is heat transfer through direct physical contact; convection is thermal energy moving with moving fluids (liquids or gases); radiation is the emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves[cite: 2].

How does size and shape affect surface-to-volume ratio (SVR), and why is high SVR important?

Smaller objects and folded shapes (like mammalian lung alveoli, fish gills, or intestinal villi) have a much higher surface-to-volume ratio, which allows for the efficient transfer of matter and energy[cite: 2].

What are chemical reactions, and why is boiling water not a chemical reaction?

Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms and chemical bonds to form new products[cite: 2]. Boiling water is a physical phase change (H2O(l) -> H2O(g)) where the chemical bonds and molecule structure do not change, making it a physical change rather than a chemical reaction[cite: 2].

What is the difference between solutions, colloids, and suspensions?

In solutions, solutes dissolve completely and do not settle; in colloids, particles remain permanently floating without dissolving; in suspensions, floating particles settle out over time (such as dirt in a river)[cite: 2].

How does the temperature of a solvent affect the solubility of gases?

Warmer water holds less dissolved gas (such as dissolved oxygen) than colder water[cite: 2].

What is Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and how does the oxygen sag curve happen?

DO is dissolved oxygen (O2 (aq)) in water, with 8–10 ppm considered healthy for freshwater ecosystems[cite: 1, 2]. The oxygen sag curve happens downstream from a pollution or heat discharge point because decomposer bacteria consume oxygen rapidly as they break down organic waste/detritus[cite: 1, 2].

Why does natural unpolluted rainwater have a pH of 5.0 to 5.6?

Because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves into rainwater and reacts to form weak carbonic acid: CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3-[cite: 1, 2].

What acid mostly causes acid rain and what human activity creates most of it?

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is the primary cause of acid rain, created mostly by human activities like burning coal that release sulfur into atmospheric water droplets[cite: 1, 2].

What are Ozone Depleting Chemicals (ODCs) and how do they destroy ozone?

ODCs like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) release chlorine atoms when hit by UV radiation in the stratosphere[cite: 1, 2]. A single chlorine atom acts as a catalyst to break down ozone (Cl + O3 -> ClO + O2), capable of destroying over 100,000 ozone molecules[cite: 1, 2].

What was the Montreal Protocol (1987)?

A successful international agreement to phase out ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs), allowing the stratospheric ozone layer to recover[cite: 1, 2].

What are the key differences between Global Warming and Ozone Depletion?

Global warming occurs in the troposphere, involves greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4) trapping infrared radiation, and has no easy international fix (Paris Agreement). Ozone depletion occurs in the stratosphere, involves ODCs allowing harmful UV radiation through, and was successfully addressed globally via the Montreal Protocol[cite: 1, 2].

What are the 4 main biological macromolecules?

1) Carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, starch); 2) Lipids (e.g., fats, oils, cell membrane phospholipids); 3) Proteins (chains of amino acids like hemoglobin); 4) Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)[cite: 1, 2].

Course Statistic: Under-5 Child Mortality

About 14,000 children under age 5 die each day, nearly all are preventable and most occur in Less Developed Countries (LDCs)[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: World Population

There are approximately 8 billion people alive today[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: U.S. Population Share

The United States accounts for approximately 4.5% of the world's population[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels

World carbon dioxide levels are higher than they have been in over 850,000 years[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: Natural Rain pH

The pH of natural, unpolluted rain is about 5.0 to 5.6[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: Healthy Freshwater Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

A healthy DO level for most freshwater ecosystems is 8–10 ppm at the surface[cite: 1].

Course Statistic: Chlorine Atom Ozone Impact

One single chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 O3 (ozone) molecules[cite: 1].