AP Psychology Unit 2 Cognition (updated for 24/25 SY)

algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

gambler's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

sunk-cost fallacy

people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

Working memory model

describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components; suggests that short-term memory is dynamic and multifaceted

Primary memory system

hippocampus

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonolgical loop

holds and retains verbal information. rehearsal. uniquely human characteristic. thought to evolve for learning of new languages.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Levels of processing model

the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered

Shallow encoding

encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds

Deep encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

Structural, phonemic, and semantic

three levels of processing

Mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Categories

clusters of interrelated concepts

Hierarchies

A Social structure that organizes ranks people such as in a class system.

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

Distributed Practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods