CHAPTER 7

Learning

The process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience

Associative Learning

Learning that two events are connected

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate two stimuli so that a previously neutral stimulus triggers a learned response

Operant Conditioning

Learning to associate a behavior with its consequences, making the behavior more or less likely to occur

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others

Ivan Pavlov

Psychologist who studied classical conditioning through experiments involving dogs, bells, and food

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning(EX: food)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus(EX: salivating in response to food)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not trigger the target response(EX: a bell before conditioning)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus(EX: a bell after conditioning)

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus(EX: salivating in response to the bell)

Classical Conditioning Before Learning

Food naturally causes a dog to salivate, while a bell does not initially cause the same response

Classical Conditioning During Learning

A neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is repeatedly presented before an unconditioned stimulus, such as food

Classical Conditioning After Learning

The previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and can trigger the learned response on its own

Unconditioned Response vs Conditioned Response

An unconditioned response is natural and unlearned, while a conditioned response is learned through association

Acquisition

The initial learning of an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause

Generalization

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

Learning to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other similar stimuli and responding differently to them

Higher-Order Conditioning

Using an established conditioned stimulus to condition a new neutral stimulus(EX: pairing a light with an established conditioned stimulus, such as a bell, until the light alone triggers the learned response)

Biological Preparedness

The biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others

Biological Preparedness Example

People may more easily develop certain fears related to potentially dangerous situations than fears involving harmless objects

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who studied how consequences influence behavior through operant conditioning( did mouse study with food)

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again

Positive Consequence

In conditioning, positive means something is added to the situation, not necessarily that it is good

Negative Consequence

In conditioning, negative means something is removed from the situation, not necessarily that it is bad

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable after a behavior to increase that behavior(EX: praising a student for completing homework)

Negative Reinforcement

Removing or avoiding something unpleasant after a behavior to increase that behavior(EX: buckling a seat belt to stop a warning sound)

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant after a behavior to decrease that behavior(EX: adding a consequence after a student repeatedly breaks a rule)

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable after a behavior to decrease that behavior(EX: taking away a privilege after a rule is broken)

Positive Reinforcement vs Negative Reinforcement

Both increase behavior, Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, while negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant

Reinforcement vs Punishment

Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases behavior

Positive Reinforcement vs Positive Punishment

Positive reinforcement adds something desirable to increase behavior, while positive punishment adds something unpleasant to decrease behavior

Negative Reinforcement vs Negative Punishment

Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase behavior, while negative punishment removes something desirable to decrease behavior

Primary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water

Conditioned Reinforcer

A reinforcer that gains its reinforcing power through learning(EX: money, which can be exchanged for other things)

Immediate Reinforcement

Reinforcement delivered directly after a behavior, often having a stronger effect on behavior than delayed reinforcement

Delayed Reinforcement

Reinforcement that occurs some time after a behavior

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the full behavior is learned

Shaping Example

A trainer rewards a dog for approaching an object, then touching it, and eventually performing a complete trick

Chaining

Connecting individual behaviors into a sequence of actions

Chaining Example

Brushing your teeth involves performing several smaller actions in a particular order

Reinforcement Schedule

A plan that determines when a behavior will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing every correct response or instance of a behavior(EX: rewarding someone every time they complete a new task)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses(EX: receiving a reward after every 10 completed tasks)

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses(EX: a game that gives rewards after varying numbers of attempts)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after a set amount of time(EX: checking for a weekly quiz)

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after unpredictable amounts of time(EX: receiving an unexpected email)

Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule based on the number of responses

Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule based on the passage of time

Fixed Schedule

A reinforcement schedule with a predictable requirement, such as a set number of responses or a set amount of time

Variable Schedule

A reinforcement schedule with an unpredictable requirement, such as varying numbers of responses or varying time intervals

Variable-Ratio Response Pattern

Often produces high and persistent response rates because reinforcement may occur after any response

Fixed-Interval Response Pattern

Responding often increases as the expected reinforcement time approaches

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and becomes apparent later

Latent Learning Example

A student learns the layout of campus by walking around without deliberately trying to memorize it

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of an environment

Insight Learning

Learning that occurs through a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Albert Bandura

Psychologist whose research demonstrated that people can learn behaviors by observing models(bobo doll experiment)

Modeling

Imitating another person’s behavior( mirror neurons are our neural basis for empathy)

Vicarious Reinforcement

Observing someone being rewarded for a behavior, which can make an observer more likely to imitate it

Vicarious Punishment

Observing someone being punished for a behavior, which can make an observer less likely to imitate it

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning associates two stimuli, while operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequences

Classical Conditioning Example

A dog learns to salivate when it hears a bell that has been associated with food

Operant Conditioning Example

A student becomes more likely to complete homework after receiving praise

Ratio vs Interval Schedules

Ratio schedules depend on the number of responses, while interval schedules depend on the passage of time

Fixed vs Variable Schedules

Fixed schedules are predictable, while variable schedules are unpredictable

The Four Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval

The Five Parts of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response

The Three Major Forms of Learning

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

Cognitive Learning

Learning that involves mental processes, such as forming mental representations, discovering solutions, or learning without immediate reinforcement

Role of Biology in Learning

Biological predispositions can make certain associations easier to learn than others

Role of Experience in Learning

Experiences and consequences help people and animals learn associations, behaviors, and responses

Role of Observation in Learning

People can learn new behaviors by watching models and observing the consequences those models experience

Thorndike’s law of effect(operant conditioning)

responses followed by pleasurable consequences are repeated(thorndikes puzzle box)

dangers of extreme punishment

fear and anxiety, lying, avoidance, modeling of agression

factors that influence the probability of imitation

motor reproductive skills, nurturance, power and sucsess, similarity and likability