Development

Label the parts of the neuron

A = Nucleus

B = Cell body

C = Myelin sheath

D = Axon

E = Axon terminals

What is the process of the foetal brain becoming different parts in early development? What are these parts called and what do they eventually become?

The foetal brain begins as a neural tube and then differentiates into the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain and spinal cord.

Forebrain = Becomes cerebral cortex and thalamus (cerebrum)

Midbrain = Brain stem

Hindbrain = Cerebellum and the rest of the brain stem

What is the function of nerve cells and what do they make up? What is the function of axons and how do they transmit messages?

Nerve cells make up the brain and nervous system of the body. They connect together to communicate and process information that allows us to think and respond to the world. Neurons are composed of a cell body (with nucleus) and a fibre called an axon which connects to other cells.

Axons carry electrical signals around the brain and to muscles all over the body, helping us feel senses. Axons transfer messages through releasing a chemicals called neurotransmitters from the axon terminals (at the end of the axon). Neurotransmitters are picked up by other neurons which allows them to react and send out their own electrical signals.

List the process of babies brain’s developing in the womb

1. Brain starts to develop around three weeks (very early in pregnancy)

2. Stem cells differentiate into neural cells in large numbers

3. These neurons migrate to their appropriate location in the brain

4. Synapses form between neurons

5. Myelination (adding myelin sheath around neurons) continues improving the speed of neural communication

6. The brain isn’t fully developed by birth and isn’t finished till a person is in early adulthood

What are the functions of the thalamus, cerebellum, cerebral cortex and brain stem? Name their positions in the brain

Thalamus (middle of brain) = Relay centre for sensory information which it then passes to the cortex

Brain stem (hind of brain) = Autonomic functions - breathing, heartbeat, connects brain to central nervous system

Cerebellum (hind of brain) = Controls voluntary physical movements and helps with coordination and balance

Cerebral cortex (wraps around front of brain) = Cognition including perception, thinking, memory processing

What happens in brain development after a child is born?

The brain begins to prune unnecessary neural connections (synapses). Synapses that are frequently used become stronger while ones that are rarely used become weaker and are eventually removed. This helps the brain become more efficient and attuned to its environment.

Explain the nature vs nurture debate, including what epigenetics is. Explain how nurture can affect a child’s development.

Nature = Characteristics and development are determined by genes inherited by parents

Identical twins have similar cognitive abilities such as IQ

Nurture = Characteristics and development are determined by the environment a child is in while in the womb and growing up

Mothers using alcohol or drugs in the womb can hinder brain development

Children who grow in a deprived environment (not stimulating and don’t encourage creativity) may end up with harmed intellectual abilities. However their brains are very adaptable and can overcome this if they’re moved into a better environment.

Describe Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. What is assimilation and accommodation?

Cognition changes as a child grows older, developing in four stages - sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational. Each stage has abilities children can and cannot do, for this reason children and adults do not think in the same way.

He claimed children have schemas for certain concepts (like a dog) which develop as they grow older through assimilation and accommodation, from new experiences.

Assimilation = Adding information to a schema that we already have

Accommodation = Creating a new schema or changing a pre-existing one

Describe the stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor (0-2) = Children explore the world through senses and movement. They develop object permanence- the ability to recognise an object is still present even when it’s out of the visual field

Pre-operational (2-7) = Children copy adults around them through role play. They have egocentric thinking meaning they can’t comprehend someone else’s perspective, they also cannot conserve mass.

Concrete operational (7-11) = Children can conserve mass and are no longer egocentric. They solve logical problems involving concrete objects or events (physically in front of them) but struggle with abstract or hypothetical thinking.

Formal operational (11+) = Children can solve problems abstractly and can solve maths in their head. Not everybody reaches this stage however Piaget does not state this is his theory.

Evaluate Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

P - His theory has affected education

E - Piaget proposed that children develop in stages and develop schemas through experiences

E - This suggests that teachers should consider a child’s readiness when introducing new concepts and encourage discovery learning rather than relying solely on rote learning.

L - Therefore his study has had good practical application in education as it has influenced how we approach children’s learning.

P - Piaget’s theory may not be representative of all children

E - Piaget proposed that children reach the formal operational stage at 11+ , developing abstract thinking

E - However research shows that not everyone develops abstract thinking and problem solving as other factors such as education and experience can affect it.

L - Therefore his theory is limited as it suggest cognitive development is a universal experience when other individual factors can affect how children develop certain abilities.

Describe Piaget’s Three Mountains Problem

Aim: To investigate whether young children are able to see a situation from another persons perspective

Method: Children were shown a model with three mountains. Once they’d looked at the model a doll was placed in a certain position. The children were shown multiple photos of the mountain and were asked to identify what the doll could see.

Results: Older children tended to succeed while children in the pre-operational stage chose a picture similar to what they could see

Conclusion: Children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric as they can’t picture the world from somebody else’s perspective

Evaluate Piaget’s Three Mountains Problem

P - The study used a standardised procedure

E - All children were shown the same model and asked the same questions about what the doll could see

E - The procedure could be easily replicated with multiple children, allowing researchers to see if similar findings would be obtained

L - The study has good reliability as it could be replicated

P - The study may have tested children’s abilities to followed instructions instead of egocentrism

E - Children were asked to understand the model, what the pictures were showing and the question being asked

E - This may of been confusing for younger children in the pre-operational stage, leading them to just select what they could see

L - The study may have low validity

Describe Piaget’s Conservation of Number study

Aim: To see if children are able to conserve mass

Method: Children were shown two rows of an equal amount of counters. One row was then spread out

Results: Younger children, in the pre operational stage, assumed there weee now more counters in the spread out row

Conclusion: Children in the pre operational stage cannot conserve mass

Evaluate Piaget’s Conservation of Number study

P - The study used a standardised procedure

E - All children were shown the amount of counters with one row being messed up

E - The procedure could be easily replicated with multiple children, allowing researchers to see if similar findings would be obtained

L - The study has good reliability as it can be replicated

P - It used an artificial task

E - Children were shown two rows of equal counters, one of which was messed up, they were asked if the rows were still equal

E - This is different to how children experience quantities in real life and children may of been confused

L - The study may have low ecological validity

Describe McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study

Aim: To investigate the age that children can conceive when the change is accidental

Method: 80 children aged 4-6 were shown two equal rows of counters and asked if the rows were equal. Then a naughty teddy was used to ‘accidentally’ spread one row of counters out. Researchers then asked children the same question.

Results: The majority of children answered correctly, although older children performed slightly better

Conclusion: Children under the age of 7 can conceive mass, although their ability does seem to improve as they grow older

Evaluate McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study

P - The study used a standardised procedure

E - All children were asked the same questions and experienced the same naughty teddy procedure

E - The procedure could be easily replicated with multiple children, allowing researchers to see if similar findings would be obtained

L - The study has reliability

P - The participants were homogeneous

E - All of them came from the same school

E - Education may influence children’s abilities to conserve mass, meaning the findings may not apply to all children

L - The study may lack generalisability if the sample isn’t representative

Describe Hughes’s Policeman Doll study

Aim: To investigate whether children in the pre operational stage could see a situation from another persons perspective

Method: 30 children between ages 3 and a half to 5 years old were shown intersecting walls, a boy doll and a policeman doll. The researcher placed the policeman doll in various positions and the children were asked to hide the boy doll from the policeman (practice to ensure the child understood the task). A second policeman doll was added and then the child was asked to hide the boy doll from both policemen by themselves.

Results: 90% of children were able to hide the boy doll from both policemen

Conclusion: By age four most children have lost their egocentrism as they are able to see situations from another persons point of view

Evaluate Hughes’s Policeman Doll study

P - The task was engaging and meaningful for children’s

E - Children had to actively hide the boy from the policeman instead of having to imagine someone else’s viewpoint

E - This task may of been easier to understand for the children, helping them demonstrate their ability to see from other’s perspective

L - The experiment may have higher validity

P - The sample was homogeneous

E - All the children came from Edinburgh

E - Children from other cultures may have different experiences that influence their development of perspectives

L - The finding have limited generalisability

What are learning styles? What are the types of learning styles? What are the criticisms of learning styles (excluding Willingham)?

Learning styles are a preferred method of receiving and remembering information

Visualiser = The person prefers to learn through images

Verbaliser = The person prefers to learn through words - reading, listening, writing

Criticisms include that they’re impractical for teachers as it’s difficult for them to accommodate all of their student’s learning styles. Another criticism is that research suggests there is no significant difference in learning between people who learn in their preferred style and those who don’t.

Describe Willingham’s learning style theory

The theory of learning styles is inaccurate as there’s little evidence to prove students learn better in their preferred style. He says that learning styles should match the topic. For example, maps in geography should be learned visually. Students should also practice learning styles they’re not comfortable with to improve. Teachers should use science backed methods to help students learn instead of learning styles.

Evaluate Willingham’s Learning Style theory

P - The theory can be applied to teaching

E - It urges teachers to match learning styles to topics (visual for maps in geography) instead of matching individual preferences

E - This gives teachers a practical way of making education more effective and efficient, improving learning

L - Therefore the theory has good application in education

P - The theory may not account for individual differences between students

E - Students can differ in abilities and prior knowledge, affecting how easily they learn particular content

E - Teachers may still need to adapt their methods to fit their needs

L - Therefore the theory is limited as it doesn’t explain how all students learn

Describe Dweck’s Mindset theory

People either can have growth or fixed mindset.

Fixed mindset = believe abilities are innate and are less likely to challenge themselves. They see failure as a sign of low ability, leading them to stop trying as they believe there’s no way for them to improve. Fixed mindsets are encouraged by praising intelligence or ability.

Growth mindset = believe abilities are developed through hard work and dedication. They see failure as feedback for how to improve and are more likely to persist with challenging tasks. They’re more likely to have learning goals. Growth mindsets are encouraged by praising effort.

Evaluate Dweck’s Mindset theory

P - The theory has been investigated

E - Blackwell studied student’s maths attainment and found those with growth mindsets continually improved their grades while those with fixed mindsets stayed at a similar level

E - This supports the idea that fixed mindsets are less likely to try and improve as they see ability as innate while growth mindsets keep trying

L - The theory is supported by evidence

P - The theory may be overly simplistic

E - It says that repeated failure is largely due to poor attitude and someone can improve if they adopt a growth mindset

E - This doesn’t account for genetics or environment which all can influence intelligence, no matter how hard someone works

L - The theory is limited as it doesn’t offer a complete explanation for why some people struggle

What is self efficacy? How does praise affect self-efficacy?

Self efficacy is a person’s sense of how well they can perform at a particular task

Negative feedback from teachers or parents can become internalised and cause poor self efficacy

Positive praise can motivate learners, improving their self efficacy as they feel more capable to take on challenging tasks