Learn: European Politics: EU Integration, Constitutions, Courts, and Governments

Defining Europe

Europe can be defined through geography, history, culture, and political institutions; the review sheet lists this as a core concept.

Welfare state

A system in which the state provides social protections and services, such as welfare benefits and public support.

Regional integration

The process by which neighboring countries coordinate policies and institutions; the European Union is a major example.

Geography

The physical location, borders, regions, and spatial relationships that shape countries and political life.

European Union (EU)

A political and economic union of European member states with shared institutions and common rules in selected policy areas.

Post-Communist states

States that transitioned away from communist rule, especially after the collapse of communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe.

Nation-state

A state whose political boundaries are associated with a nation or people who see themselves as sharing a national identity.

Greek-Turkish population exchange

A forced population exchange between Greece and Turkey associated with the aftermath of the 1919-1922 Greek-Turkish War and the 1923 settlement.

Nur's memoirs

About national identity and population exchange

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Minority nationalism

Nationalist identification and political mobilization among a group that is a minority within a state.

Secessionism

A movement or demand for a region to separate from an existing state and become independent or join another state.

National self-determination

The principle that a people should be able to determine its political status and pursue its political, economic, social, and cultural development.

Governance

The way political authority is exercised and how decisions are made, implemented, and held accountable.

Common law

A legal tradition in which judicial decisions and precedent are important sources of law.

Code law / civil law

A legal tradition based primarily on organized written codes and statutes.

Constitutions

Foundational rules that establish government institutions, distribute powers, and often protect rights.

Federalism

A system that constitutionally divides authority between a central government and regional governments.

Asymmetric federalism

A federal arrangement in which different regions have different powers or special status.

Länder

The German states/regions, which exercise substantial authority and are represented in the Bundesrat.

Angela Merkel

She was Germany's chancellor from 2005 to 2021 and the first woman to hold the office; CDU/CSU leadership and East German background.

Devolution

The transfer of powers from a central government to regional institutions; the UK presentation links it to regional parliaments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Brexit

The United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.

Brexit referendum / Scottish independence

The 2014 Scottish independence referendum favored remaining in the UK (55.3%); the 2016 Brexit referendum favored leaving the EU across the UK (51.9%), while 62% of Scotland voted Remain, according to the presentation.

Roman law / common law

Roman law influenced continental European civil-law traditions; common law gives a major role to judicial precedent.

Judicialization of politics

The increasing role of courts and legal processes in resolving issues that are politically important.

Judicial review

The power of a court to assess whether laws or government actions comply with a constitution or higher law.

Abstract judicial review

Constitutional review of a law or rule without requiring the decision to arise from a specific individual case.

Constitutional court

A court or specialized body that interprets and enforces constitutional rules and may review legislation.

EU regulation

An EU legal act that is binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all member states.

Acquis communautaire

The accumulated body of EU law, rules, obligations, and legal principles that member states accept.

European Commission

The EU institution that proposes legislation, implements policies and the budget, and monitors compliance with EU law.

European Court of Justice (ECJ)

The EU court that interprets EU law and helps ensure it is applied consistently across member states.

EU law

The body of legal rules created through EU treaties and institutions.

Supremacy

The principle that EU law takes precedence over conflicting national law within the scope of EU law, as established by EU jurisprudence.

Cabinet

The senior ministers who lead government departments and make major policy decisions with the head of government.

Head of state vs. head of government

The head of state represents the state (for example, a president or monarch); the head of government leads the government and policy (for example, a prime minister).

Presidential system

A system in which the president is separately elected and serves as the chief executive, with a distinct mandate from the legislature.

Semi-presidential system

A system with both a directly elected president and a prime minister/cabinet that depends on legislative support; the French Fifth Republic is the presentation's example.

Parliamentary system

A system in which the government is formed from the legislature and must maintain its confidence.

Cohabitation

In a semi-presidential system, a president and prime minister from opposing political camps share executive authority.

Vote of no-confidence

A parliamentary vote indicating that the government no longer has the legislature's support and may have to resign or trigger a government change/election.

Constructive vote of no-confidence

A procedure in which parliament can remove a head of government only by simultaneously agreeing on a replacement; Germany is the presentation's example.

Majority government

A government supported by a majority of seats in the legislature.

Coalition government

A government formed by two or more parties that agree to govern together.

Minority government

A government whose party or parties hold fewer than half the legislative seats and must rely on outside support to pass measures.

Minimal winning coalition

A coalition with just enough parties/seats to command a majority; removing any member would cause it to lose that majority.

Surplus majority coalition

A coalition that includes more parties or seats than are necessary to reach a majority.

Portfolios

Ministerial positions or government departments distributed among parties or politicians when a government is formed.

Forming a government

The process of negotiating support, selecting a prime minister or cabinet, and assembling a governing majority or workable parliamentary support.

Upper houses

The second chamber in a bicameral legislature, often intended to represent regions or provide additional legislative review.

Bicameralism

A legislature with two chambers.

Symmetric bicameralism

A two-chamber system in which both chambers have similar or equal legislative powers.

European Parliament

The directly elected EU institution that shares legislative and budgetary powers with the Council of the European Union and scrutinizes other EU institutions.

House of Commons / House of Lords (UK)

The Commons is the elected lower chamber; the Lords is the unelected upper chamber.

National Assembly / Senate (France)

France's National Assembly has 577 seats and is elected directly; the Senate has 348 seats in the presentation and is elected indirectly, with six-year terms.

Chamber of Deputies / Senate

Italy's two chambers have equal powers in the presentation; the Chamber of Deputies is the lower house and the Senate is the upper house.

German Legislature

The Bundestag is the federal parliament's lower chamber; the Bundesrat represents the Länder and participates in federal lawmaking.

Party groupings / party families

Broad ideological families that connect parties across countries, such as social democrats, liberals, greens, Christian democrats, and conservatives.

Party system

The pattern of competition and cooperation among political parties in a country.

Party discipline

The degree to which party members vote and act in line with their party's leadership or agreed position.

Party lists

Lists of candidates presented by parties in proportional-representation elections; seats are allocated according to the party's vote and list rules.

Center-right / conservatives

A political family generally emphasizing tradition, social order, market-oriented policies, or gradual change; positions vary by country.

Communism

A political and economic ideology that seeks collective ownership of productive resources and a classless society; communist parties have played different roles across Europe.

Social democrats

Parties of the center-left that generally support democracy, social welfare, workers' rights, and regulated market economies.

Liberals

A broad political family emphasizing individual rights and freedoms; these parties often also support market competition and, frequently, European integration.

The left

A broad political orientation commonly associated with reducing inequality, social welfare, labor rights, and greater economic redistribution.

Greens

Parties emphasizing environmental protection and sustainability, often alongside social justice and participatory politics.

Christian democrats

Parties influenced by Christian social thought that often combine social responsibility with center-right economic or social positions.

European populism / far right

Movements that claim to represent 'the people' against elites; far-right parties often add strong nationalism, anti-immigration positions, or exclusionary ideas of national identity.

Viktor Orban

A Hungarian political leader associated with national conservatism and a strongly centralized, illiberal style of governance.

Giorgia Meloni

Italy's first female prime minister, taking office in 2022, leading a coalition of right-wing parties.

Alternative for Germany (AfD) / Reform UK

Examples of parties associated in the review topic list with right-wing/populist politics in Germany and the UK, respectively.

Electoral volatility

The degree to which voters change their party preferences between elections, producing shifts in party vote shares.

People's Party

A party in Iceland with 10 seats after the November 30, 2024 election; associates it with disability rights.

Five Star Movement

An Italian populist, anti-ideological movement founded by comedian/blogger Beppe Grillo; the presentation says it won a plurality in 2018 and entered a coalition with the Northern League.

En Marche

Emmanuel Macron's centrist, liberal, pro-European movement, presented as an alternative to traditional parties and National Front populism.

Referendum

A direct vote in which voters decide a specific political or policy question.

Plurality voting

The candidate with the most votes wins, even without receiving more than 50%; the UK presentation describes single-member-district plurality voting.

Proportional representation (PR)

An electoral system that allocates seats roughly in proportion to parties' vote shares.

Single Transferable Vote (STV)

A preferential voting system in multi-member districts where voters rank candidates and votes transfer as candidates are elected or eliminated.

Personalized PR / mixed systems

Systems combining district-level candidate elections with proportional party-list representation

Multi-member districts

Electoral districts that elect more than one representative.

Majoritarian bonuses

Rules that award a seat bonus or extra representation to a party or coalition to help it secure a governing majority.

5% rule / threshold rules

A minimum vote-share requirement that parties must meet to receive proportional-representation seats

Political participation

Activities through which people engage in politics, including voting, campaigning, contacting officials, protesting, or joining organizations.

Voting laws

Legal rules governing voter eligibility, registration, ballot procedures, and election administration.

Post-materialism

A value orientation that gives greater priority to self-expression, quality of life, participation, and environmental concerns than to material security alone.

Valence issues

Issues on which many voters broadly agree about the desired goal, but differ in which party they trust to achieve it best.

Issue ownership

The perception that a particular party is especially competent or credible on a given issue.

Media systems

The institutional and political arrangements shaping media ownership, regulation, journalism, and relationships with parties and governments.

Traditional vs. social media

Traditional media include established outlets such as newspapers and broadcast news; social media platforms enable users and organizations to publish and share content directly.

Trust in media

The degree to which people believe media outlets are accurate, fair, and reliable.

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Party vs. media logic

Party logic prioritizes party goals and political strategy; media logic prioritizes news values, attention, presentation, and audience engagement.

Public ownership of media

Media outlets owned or controlled by the state or public institutions, rather than exclusively by private owners.

Local media

Media outlets that cover local communities, governments, and issues.

Italian constitutional reforms

Attempts to change Italy's constitutional or institutional arrangements; the presentation notes a 2026 judicial reform referendum loss for Giorgia Meloni.

Italicum

An Italian electoral law associated with a proposed/implemented system for the Chamber of Deputies that included a majority bonus