AP BIO Unit 1

Macromolecules

Formed from Carbon atoms

Polymers

Chains of repeating subunits (monomers)

4 main macromolecules:

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins

Carbohydrate functions

Short term energy storage and providing building materials to cells and organisms

What is Carbohydrate made of?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Monosaccharides

Monomers of carbohydrates, made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen atoms 1:2:1 ratio

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides bonded together by dehydration synthesis

Glycosidic linkage

Covalent bond formed between monosaccharides because of dehydration synthesis

Dehydration synthesis

Joins monomers together to form a polymer by releasing a water molecule as a byproduct

Hydrolysis

Breaks large polymers down into smaller monomers by adding a water molecule

Polysaccharide

Polymer of monosaccharides

Storage polysaccharides

Plants store sugars in form of starch

Animals store sugars in form on glycogen

Structural polysaccharides

Organisms build strong materials from this

Cellulose and Chitin

Proteins

Made of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain

Protein functions

Defense, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support

Formation of Amino Acids

Amino group, carboxyl group, R group connected to central carbon atom

Amine-Central C-Carboxyl

R Groups

Variable side chained that are unique to each of the 29 amino acids

Formation of polypeptide

Amino acid monomers linked together through dehydration synthesis, forming covalent bonds (peptide bonds)

Peptide bond

Formed between the carboxyl group carbon atom of one amino acid and the amino group nitrogen atom of another amino acid

Structure of proteins

One or more polypeptides twisted, folded and coiled into a unique 3d shape

Primary level proteins

Linear sequence of amino acids, changing sequence can produce different proteins

Secondary level proteins

Hydrogen bonds between amino acids causes polypeptides to form alpha helix’s and beta pleated sheets

Tertiary level proteins

Final folding shape of polypeptides, determined by interactions between R groups: hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, ionic and covalent bonds.

Quaternary level proteins

Two or more folded polypeptides forming a single, large functional protein

Not every protein reaches this stage

Protein subunit

In quaternary level structure, they are the individual polypeptides that make up final protein structure

Denaturation

Loss of proteins functional structure due to changes in environmental conditions

Enzymatic proteins

Catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions between cells

Transport proteins

Embedded in cell membrane that control the movement of substances in and out of the cell

Contractile and motor proteins

Mother proteins help cells move and move materials inside cells; Contractile proteins found in muscles and are responsible for muscle contraction

Receptor proteins

Bind to chemical signals and initiate cell response

Hormonal/Signaling proteins

Hormones that are released into the blood and bind to receptors on cells

Defense proteins

Assist immune system

Structural proteins

Long, fibrous proteins that provide structure in organisms

Nucleic Acids

Made of nucleotides, DNA and RNA

DNA

Genetic material that stores information for it’s own replication and for amino acid sequences

RNA

Wide range of functions, proteins synthesis and regulation of gene expression

Formation of Nucleotide

Phosphate group, pentose (5 carbon) sugar, nitrogenous base

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases with one ring

Purines

Nitrogenous bases with two rings

Formation of polynucleotides

Nucleotides joined together by dehydration reactions to form a strand called polynucleotide

Phosphodiester linkage

Link between 3’ carbon of one nucleotide and the 5’ carbon of the next nucleotide

Sugar phosphate backbone

“Side” of DNA or RNA strand, composed of alternation sugar and phosphate groups

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, nucleotide composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphates

High energy molecule bc of the last unstable phosphate bond

Lipids

Diverse group of macromolecules, all mostly hydrophobic

Types of lipids

Fats, phospholipids, steroids

Fats (Triglycerides)

Made of large nonpolar molecules, main function is energy storage

Formation of triglycerides

Three fatty acid monomers bonded to one glycerol monomer, bonded to glycerol via dehydration synthesis

Ester linkages

Covalent bonds formed as a result of formation of Tryglercides

Saturated fats

Fatty acid chains with all single bonds between carbon atoms, solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fats

Fatty acid chains that have double or triple bonds between carbon atoms, usually oils and tend to be liquids at room temperature

Phospholipids

One glycerol molecule linked to two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group

Phospholipid function

Main component of cell membranes

Steriods

Lipids with carbon skeleton of four fused carbon rings

Steroid Functions

Cholesterol is a component in animal cell membranes

Sex hormones are steroids that regulate and control the body