AP psych unit one better

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse/action potential.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive incoming messages and send them toward the cell body.

Axon

The long extension of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other cells.

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon that speeds up neural signal transmission.

Synapse

The tiny gap between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and the receiving neuron.

Nerves

Bundled cables of axons that connect the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters that reduce pain and boost mood.

Endocrine System:

The body’s slow chemical communication system made up of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter regulating reward, pleasure, movement, and motivation; linked to schizophrenia (excess) and Parkinson’s (deficiency).

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap to relay signals between neurons.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that calms neural activity.

Ghrelin:

A hormone released by the stomach that signals hunger to the brain.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals fullness/satiety to reduce appetite.

Melatonin

A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that increases alertness, arousal, and focus (fight or flight)

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding, trust, childbirth, and milk ejection.

Hormones

Chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect tissues.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter controlling mood, sleep, and hunger; undersupply is strongly linked to depression.

Substance P

A neuropeptide/neurotransmitter responsible for transmitting pain signals to the brain

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that depolarize post-synaptic neurons, increasing the likelihood they will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that hyperpolarize post-synaptic neurons, decreasing the likelihood they will fire

Acetylcholine (ACh

Neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; breakdown causes Alzheimer’s disease

Adrenaline / Epinephrine

A hormone/neurotransmitter triggered by stress/fear that activates the body’s "fight-or-flight" response.87`

Hindbrain

The lower region connecting the cerebrum to the spinal cord; controls vital autonomic functions

Cerebellum ("Little Brain")

Coordinates balance, posture, fine voluntary movements, and procedural memory.

Medulla Oblongata

The base of the brainstem controlling vital survival functions like heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Pons

Structure connecting the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain; involved in sleep, facial expressions, and body standstill during sleep.

Reticular Activating System (Reticular Formation):

A nerve network in the brainstem that controls arousal, alertness, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Limbic System

The "mammal brain" ring of structures associated with emotions, motivation, memory, and drives.

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped structures in the limbic system that process basic emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Structure essential for processing and forming new long-term conscious memories.

Hypothalamus

Directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp, sex drive) and governs the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system that regulates growth and controls all other endocrine glands.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard that routes all incoming sensory information (except smell) to the cortex.

Cerebral Cortex

The thin outer layer of neural tissue covering the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive processes.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain consisting of two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.

Frontal Lobes

Front portion of the cortex involved in planning, reasoning, decision-making, and voluntary muscle control.

Prefrontal Cortex

The frontmost area of the frontal lobe that controls executive functions, personality, and social behavior.

Motor Cortex

An arc-shaped strip at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary body movements.

Broca’s Area

Located in the left frontal lobe; controls the muscle movements necessary for speech production.

Parietal Lobes

Top-middle region of the brain that processes sensory input for touch, body position, pain, and temperature.

Somatosensory Cortex

Strip at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes touch sensations from across the body.

Temporal Lobes

Areas above the ears that process auditory information and language comprehension.

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension and understanding spoken/written words.

Occipital Lobes

Region at the back of the head that receives and processes visual input.

Association Areas

Cortical regions not involved in primary motor/sensory functions, but rather higher mental processes like thinking, learning, and remembering.

Executive Functioning

Higher-level processes managed by the prefrontal cortex, including planning, problem-solving, self-control, and decision-making.

Ventricles

Fluid-filled cavities in the brain

Aphasia

Language impairment caused by brain damage usually on the left hemisphere (either to Broca's area or Wernicke's area)

Broca’s Aphasia

Condition causing non-fluent, slow, and halting speech production, while comprehension remains mostly intact.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Condition causing loss of language comprehension; speech remains fluent but lacks meaning.

Contralateral Hemisphere Organization

Pattern where each cerebral hemisphere controls sensory and motor functions on the opposite side of the body.

Corpus Callosum

A dense band of neural fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

EEG (Electroencephalogram

A technique recording electrical activity/brain waves across the scalp.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain scan measuring blood oxygen flow to map active brain regions during tasks.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed structural images of soft tissue.

Lesion

Destruction or removal of a specific portion of brain tissue due to injury, surgery, or disease.

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize itself by forming new neural pathways after damage or through experience

Split-Brain Research

Studying people with a cut corpus callosum to see how the left and right sides of the brain work separately.

Addiction

Needing a drug or behavior so badly that you can't stop, even when it's messing up your life.

Agonist

A drug that copies a neurotransmitter to make a neuron fire. (Memory trick: Agonist = Adds action)

Antagonist

A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter's receptor site, stopping the neuron from firing.

Depressants

Drugs (like alcohol) that slow down brain activity and body functions.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that make you see or hear things that aren't actually there.

Opioids

Painkiller drugs that mimic endorphins to block pain and relax the body.

Psychoactive Drugs

Any chemical substance that changes your mood, thoughts, or consciousness.

Reuptake Inhibitors:

Drugs that block neurons from vacuuming up leftover neurotransmitters, leaving more in the gap to keep working

Stimulants

Drugs (like caffeine or cocaine) that speed up brain activity and body functions.

Tolerance

Needing bigger and bigger doses of a drug over time to feel the same high.

Withdrawal

The painful physical or mental sickness you feel when you suddenly stop taking an addictive drug.