WRTC 300 McDonnell Final (Password to edit: 300)

Clauses (independent, dependent) v. phrases

A clause has a subject and a verb.

Independent clause: A complete thought (can stand alone).Example: She runs every morning.

Dependent clause: Not a complete thought (can't stand alone).Example: Because she runs every morning...

A phrase does not have both a subject and a verb.

It adds detail but cannot stand as a sentence.Example: Running through the park (no subject doing the action).

Semicolons and colons

semi colon signals readers to slight shades of meaning, drawing connections and showing relationships.

Colon alerts the reader that information that follows illustrates the information the precedes it.

Commas (including oxford comma)

understand comma rules and the oxford comma?

Comma splice

It occurs when two main (or independent) clauses are incorrectly combined using only a comma.

"The hat does not fit, it's too tight."

fused sentence

Apostrophe

The cat's toy (the toy belongs to the cat)

The teachers' lounge (lounge for multiple teachers)

Do not → don't

Hyphen

.

well-known author, high-quality work

twenty-one, ninety-nine

re-sign (to sign again) vs. resign (to quit)

Em Dash (long dash)

A punctuation symbol used to indicate an explanation or emphasis.

en dash (short dash)

longer than a hyphen and shorter than an em dash; can be used instead of a bullet point in lists and to show ranges of numbers, such as times, page numbers, or scores (I'll schedule you from 4:30-5:00). Often replaced by hyphens.

Compound words

Two or more words combined to act as one unit of meaning.

Closed: one word (notebook, sunflower)

Hyphenated: joined with hyphen (mother-in-law, well-known)

Open: separate words (real estate, high school)

coordinating conjunction

connect equal grammatical parts

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)

adverbial conjunctions

Words that connect independent clauses and show relation (cause, contrast, sequence, etc.).

Ex: however, therefore, moreover, consequently, meanwhile.

Use a semicolon before and a comma after when joining clauses.

Ex: She was tired; however, she finished the report.

lay/lie

Lay=to put something down (needs an object).

Present: lay Past: laid Past Participle: laid

Example: I lay the book on the table. Yesterday I laid it there.

Lie = to recline or rest (no object).

Present: lie Past: lay Past Participle: lain

Example: I lie down at 10 p.m. Yesterday I lay down early.

Capitalization

Capitalize: Proper nouns (names of people, places, organizations, etc.)Example: Shakespeare, Paris, NASA

Major words in book, article, and movie titles (The Great Gatsby)Days, months, holidays (Monday, July, Thanksgiving)

I (always capitalized)

Don't capitalize: Seasons (spring, fall) General subjects (math, history—unless it's a specific course like History 101)

Job titles when not used as a proper name Example: The manager said...

Homophones

words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings.

their / there / they're

your / you're

to / too / two

its / it's

hear / here

right / write

pronoun-antecedent agreement

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number and gender.

Example:

• Each student must bring HIS OR HER book.

• The players took THEIR positions.

Watch for:

• Indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, somebody) → usually singular

• Collective nouns → can be singular or plural depending on meaning

judgment

"judgement" is used in British English, "judgment" is preferred in American English

He made a wise judgment.

She passed judgment on the case.

style

tone, word choice, sentence structure, and overall voice used in writing. Influences clarity, tone, and readability.

Two main types of style:

Formal: More structured, serious, and precise (used in academic or professional contexts).

Informal: Casual, conversational, more personal (used in blogs, emails, etc.).

Can be influenced by:

Audience (who you're writing for)

Purpose (what you want to achieve)

Medium (e.g., print vs. digital)

adjective

modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. Tells what kind, which one, how many, or how much.

Examples: red, tall, several, beautiful, noisy

The blue sky looked clear.

Comes before the noun or after linking verbs (The sky is blue.)

query

A query is a question or comment an editor makes to the writer to clarify, correct, or confirm information.

Can address: unclear wording, factual accuracy, style inconsistencies, etc.

Tone should be professional, polite, and constructive.

Example:

Query: Did you mean "affect" instead of "effect" here?

Correctness

using standard grammar, punctuation, spelling, and usage. Ensures the writing is accurate and free of errors.

Involves checking for:

• Subject-verb agreement

• Pronoun-antecedent agreement

• Spelling and word usage

• Punctuation and mechanics

• A foundation of clear, credible writing—essential for professional editing.

clarity

making sure writing is easily understood by the intended audience. Requires eliminating ambiguity, jargon, wordiness, or complex sentence structures.

Tips for clarity:

• Use precise words

• Prefer active voice

• Break up long or dense sentences

• Remove unnecessary modifiers or filler words

• Goal: Readers should grasp meaning quickly and easily.

consistency

keeping style, formatting, tone, and usage the same throughout a document.

*Helps maintain professionalism, readability, and trust.

*Use a style sheet to track choices.

Key areas:

• Spelling: email vs. e-mail

• Punctuation: serial comma, hyphenation

• Capitalization: job titles, headings

• Terminology: always use the same word for the same concept

Coherence

the ideas flow logically and smoothly from one to the next.

Ensures that readers can follow the argument, story, or explanation without confusion.

Key tools for coherence:

• Transitions (e.g., however, therefore, in addition)

• Clear paragraph structure (one main idea per paragraph)

• Logical order (chronological, cause-effect, etc.)

• Consistent point of view and tense

• Goal: Writing feels connected and purposeful, not choppy or disjointed.

syntax

the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences. Affects clarity, tone, and readability.

Editors check for:

Sentence structure (fragments, run-ons, proper word order)

Parallelism

Subject-verb placement

Consistency in tense and voice

Example (parallel syntax):

She likes hiking, swimming, and biking. ✔️

She likes to hike, swimming, and bikes. ❌

style guide/manual

a set of rules and conventions for writing and editing.

Ensures consistency in grammar, punctuation, spelling, formatting, and citation.

Common guides:

• Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) - publishing, books

• Associated Press (AP) - journalism

• APA - social sciences

• MLA - humanities

Use to resolve style questions not covered by grammar rules.

style sheet

a custom document editors use to track editorial decisions and ensure consistency across a project.

Includes:

Spelling and hyphenation choices (email vs. e-mail)

Capitalization preferences (web vs. Web)

Punctuation rules (e.g., use of Oxford comma)

Preferred terms or formatting (e.g., bold for headings, italics for titles)

Especially useful when no single style guide applies or when house style overrides a manual.

spelling

frequently misused/confused words

Words that are often mistaken for one another due to similar spelling, sound, or meaning.

Common pairs:

affect (verb) / effect (noun)

then (time) / than (comparison)

who (subject) / whom (object)

fewer (countable) / less (uncountable)

its (possessive) / it's (it is)

accept (receive) / except (exclude)

grammar

the rules that govern the structure of sentences, including word order, punctuation, and parts of speech.

Key components of grammar:

• Parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, etc.)

• Sentence structure (subject-verb agreement, punctuation)

• Tense and aspect (past, present, future; perfect, continuous)

• Punctuation (commas, periods, semicolons, etc.)

• Modifiers (ensuring they are clear and correctly placed)

usage

how words and phrases are correctly used in writing according to established rules and conventions. Ensures appropriate word choice based on meaning, context, and style.

Includes:

• Commonly misused words (e.g., affect vs. effect, lie vs. lay)

• Colloquialisms vs. formal language

• Correct preposition usage (e.g., interested in vs. interested on)

• Proper idiomatic expressions

diction

the choice of words and style of expression in writing. Affects tone, clarity, and impact of the message.

Types of diction:

Formal: used in academic or professional contexts (e.g., commence instead of begin).

Informal: casual, conversational style (e.g., kids instead of children).

Colloquial: regional or cultural expressions (e.g., y'all in the Southern U.S.).

Slang: informal, often playful or trendy language (e.g., lit, cool).

Single vs. double quotation marks

Double quotation marks (" ") are typically used for direct speech or quoting someone else's words.

Example: She said, "I will meet you at the park."

Single quotation marks (' ') are often used:

1. Within a quote to show a quote within a quote.

Example: "I heard him say, 'Meet me at the park,'" she explained.

2. In British English, for primary quotations, though this can vary by style guide.

Consistent usage: Be sure to follow the style guide (e.g., AP, Chicago) for consistency, especially with punctuation placement.

Punctuation with closing quotation marks

American English:

Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.

Example: She said, "Let's go to the park."

Question marks and exclamation marks go inside the quotation marks if they apply to the quoted material; otherwise, they go outside.

Example (quote applies): He asked, "Are you coming?"

Example (quote does not apply): Did she say, "Let's go to the park"?

British English: Often places punctuation outside the quotation marks unless it's part of the quoted material.

Google Ngram

tool that shows how often words, phrases, or specific terms appear in books over time, based on Google's massive digital library. It helps analyze language trends, shifts in word usage, and the evolution of phrases.

Useful for:

Researching word frequency over decades or centuries

Understanding historical context and word usage

Comparing the popularity of similar terms or phrases

Example: You could compare how often the words "email" and "e-mail" appeared in books from 1800 to the present.

Can be a great tool for editors to ensure appropriate word choices based on historical usage.

Tone

the attitude or emotion conveyed in a piece of writing.

Sets the mood and helps establish how readers feel about the subject.

Influenced by:

Word choice (formal vs. informal, positive vs. negative)

Sentence structure (short, punchy sentences vs. longer, more complex ones)

Punctuation (exclamation marks, ellipses, etc.)

Common types of tone:

Formal (e.g., academic writing, reports)

Informal (e.g., conversational, friendly emails)

Sarcastic, sympathetic, optimistic, serious, etc.

Fragments

Common types of fragments:

Missing subject: Running to the store. (Who is running?)

Missing verb: The tall building. (What about the building?)

Dependent clause as a sentence: Because he was tired. (What happened because he was tired?)

To correct a fragment:

Add the missing parts (subject/verb).

Combine it with a nearby independent clause.

Example: Running to the store, she realized she forgot her wallet.

Parallellism

the use of consistent grammatical structures within a sentence or across sentences to ensure clarity and balance.

Ensures that elements of equal importance are expressed in the same grammatical form.

Commonly used with:

Lists or series:

Correct: She likes hiking, swimming, and biking.

Incorrect: She likes hiking, swimming, and to bike.

Correlative conjunctions (e.g., either...or, neither...nor):

Correct: He will either go to the park or stay at home.

Incorrect: He will either go to the park or staying at home.

Subordination

the process of making one clause less important than another by using subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, if, when, while, unless). The main clause (independent) stands alone, while the subordinate clause (dependent) cannot stand alone and adds additional information. Subordinate clauses provide extra detail but do not express a complete thought.

Example:

• Main clause: She stayed home.

• Subordinate clause: because she was feeling sick.

• Complete sentence: She stayed home because she was feeling sick.

Coordination

the process of joining two or more independent clauses or elements of equal importance using coordinating conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). Each clause in a coordinated sentence has equal weight and can stand alone as a complete thought. Coordinating conjunctions help link ideas and maintain balance and clarity.

Example:

She wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain.

I can either study now, or I can wait until later.

Nominalization

the process of turning verbs or adjectives into nouns.

**can increase formality for academic writing, but overuse can also lead to wordiness or less direct writing.

Example:

Verb to noun: decide → decision

Adjective to noun: strong → strength

Example (nominalized): The manager gave a recommendation for the project.

Example (active): The manager recommended the project.

unbiased language

refers to language that is neutral, respectful, and inclusive, avoiding stereotypes, assumptions, and prejudices.

Examples:

• Gender-neutral: Use they instead of he/she when the gender is unknown, or use chairperson instead of chairman.

• Avoiding stereotypes: Instead of the elderly, use older adults or seniors if needed.

• Disability: Use person with a disability instead of labeling someone as handicapped or disabled without context.

Singular "they"

used to refer to a person whose gender is unknown, unspecified, or nonbinary. It is grammatically correct and widely accepted in modern English, particularly in contexts where gender neutrality or inclusivity is needed.

Examples:

• If anyone calls, tell them I'm out of the office.

• Each student should submit their homework by Friday.

• Jordan said they would be here soon.

Usage notes:

• Singular "they" can be used as a subject (They are coming over later.) or object (I saw them at the store.).

• It is commonly used to respect people who prefer nonbinary pronouns or when the person's gender is not known.

Paragraphing

Key elements of effective paragraphing:

Topic Sentence: The main idea or claim of the paragraph.

Example: The environment is crucial for human health.

Supporting Sentences: These expand on the topic sentence with examples, explanations, or evidence.

Example: Pollution has been linked to respiratory issues and other health problems.

Concluding Sentence (optional): Summarizes or transitions to the next paragraph.

Example: As a result, protecting the environment is vital for public health.

When to start a new paragraph:

When introducing a new idea

When the topic shifts

To create a break after a long section of text (especially in longer pieces).

Font (print v. digital, serif v. sans serif)

Serif fonts have small decorative strokes (serifs) at the ends of letters.

Examples: Times New Roman, Georgia

Best for: Print, as serifs help guide the eye along lines of text.

Sans serif fonts have clean, modern lines without strokes.

Examples: Arial, Helvetica, Calibri

Best for: Digital screens, offering better readability on low-res displays.

Print vs. Digital:

Print favors serif fonts for body text and may use sans serif for headings.

Digital often uses sans serif fonts for both headings and body text due to screen clarity.

Font choice affects tone and readability—important for both design and accessibility.

Prepositions/ prepositional phrase

shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another word in the sentence.

Examples: in, on, at, by, for, with, about, under, through

A prepositional phrase includes the preposition, its object, and any modifiers.

Structure: preposition + object of the preposition

Example: under the table, with great care, at the park

Prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs:

The book on the shelf is mine. (adjective phrase modifying "book")

She ran through the tunnel. (adverb phrase modifying "ran")

subject

the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing the action or being described.

Usually appears before the verb in a sentence.

Example: The dog barked loudly.

Can include…

• Simple (just the main noun or pronoun): She runs.

• Complete (includes modifiers): The energetic little boy runs.

• Compound (two or more joined by and or or): The cat and the dog are sleeping.

Every sentence must have a subject (unless it's a command, where "you" is implied).

predicate

tells what the subject does or is—it includes the verb and all related words.

It provides information about the subject: actions, conditions, or states of being.

Types:

• Simple predicate: just the main verb or verb phrase

  • She runs.

• Complete predicate: the verb plus all its modifiers or objects

  • She runs every morning before work.

linking verbs

Connect the subject to a subject complement (a noun or adjective that describes or renames the subject).

Common: be, seem, become, appear, feel, look

Example: She is a teacher. / The soup tastes good.

intransitive verbs

Do not take a direct object.

Example: He sleeps peacefully. (No object follows the verb)

tip: Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on use.

She runs a business. (transitive)

She runs every morning. (intransitive)

transitive verbs

Require a direct object (something that receives the action).

Example: She wrote a letter. (What did she write? → a letter)

tip: Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on use.

She runs a business. (transitive)

She runs every morning. (intransitive)

subject-verb agreement

Subject-verb agreement means the verb must match the subject in number (singular or plural).

Basic rule:

• Singular subject → singular verb (The dog barks.)

• Plural subject → plural verb (The dogs bark.)

Tricky cases to watch for:

• Indefinite pronouns:

  • Everyone is ready. (singular)

  • Few are interested. (plural)

• Compound subjects:

  • Peanut butter and jelly is my favorite lunch. (seen as one item → singular)

  • The cat and the dog are sleeping. (two subjects → plural)

• Prepositional phrases between subject and verb:

  • The box of books is heavy. (subject is box, not books)

verb tense

dangling modifier

a descriptive phrase that does not clearly or logically modify a word in the sentence. It often appears at the beginning of a sentence and leaves the reader wondering who or what is being described.

Problem: The subject the modifier is meant to describe is missing or unclear.

Example (dangling):

Walking down the street, the flowers were blooming.→ (Who was walking? The flowers?)

Fixed:

Walking down the street, I saw the flowers blooming.

subordinating conjunctions

introduce dependent clauses and phrases

if, after, while, when, as, although, because, as soon as, unless, before, since, even, even though, whereas, and so on

idiom

a common expression whose meaning is not literal but understood through usage. The meaning is usually figurative, not directly related to the words themselves. often culturally specific

Examples:

• "Kick the bucket" = to die

• "Break the ice" = to ease tension in a social situation

• "Hit the nail on the head" = to be exactly right

possessives

Possessives show ownership or a relationship between things.

• For singular nouns, add 's:

  • The dog's leash (leash belongs to the dog)

• For plural nouns ending in -s, just add ':

  • The teachers' lounge (lounge for multiple teachers)

• For irregular plurals, add 's:

  • The children's toys

• For compound nouns or shared possession:

  • My mother-in-law's recipe

  • Sam and Alex's apartment (they share it)

  • Sam's and Alex's cars (they each have their own)

Don’t confuse with contractions:

• It's = it is; its = possessive

• Who's = who is; whose = possessive

subject/ verb agreement with gerunds

a verb ending in -ing that functions as a noun.

When a gerund phrase is the subject, treat it as singular, even if it includes a plural noun.

Ex:

• Running long distances takes endurance. ✅

• Eating vegetables every day improves your health. ✅

• Swimming in cold lakes are refreshing. ❌

If there are multiple gerunds joined by "and," treat as plural:

Running and swimming are excellent workouts. ✅

verbals

words that are derived from verbs but function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs instead of verbs.

There are three main types of verbals:

• Gerunds: Verb + -ing, acting as a noun

  • Example: Reading is enjoyable.

• Infinitives: "To" + base verb, acting as a noun, adjective, or adverb

  • Example: She has a plan to succeed.

• Participles: Verb + -ing or -ed, acting as an adjective

  • Example: The broken vase was on the table.

participles/ participial phrases

a verb form that functions as an adjective to describe a noun or pronoun.

Common endings: -ing (present participle) or -ed (past participle)

Examples: barking dog (present participle), broken window (past participle)

A participial phrase consists of the participle and any related objects, modifiers, or complements. It acts as an adjective that modifies a noun.

Example: The dog, barking loudly, ran down the street.

Participle: barking

Phrase: barking loudly

Modifies: dog

infinitive

the base form of a verb preceded by "to" that can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in a sentence.

Example: to run, to eat, to write, to read

As a noun: I want to learn.

As an adjective: She has a book to read.

As an adverb: He went to the store to buy groceries.

____ Phrases: An ___ with additional words to complete its meaning.

Example: She needs to study for the exam.

Split _____: This occurs when an adverb is inserted between to and the verb (e.g., to boldly go). While grammatically acceptable, it's often avoided in formal writing.

american versus British English

American and British English differ in spelling, vocabulary, punctuation, and usage.

Spelling Differences:

• Color (US) vs. Colour (UK)

• Organize (US) vs. Organise (UK)

• Traveler (US) vs. Traveller (UK)

• Vocabulary Differences:

• Truck (US) vs. Lorry (UK)

• Apartment (US) vs. Flat (UK)

• Flashlight (US) vs. Torch (UK)

Punctuation:

• US English often uses double quotation marks for dialogue; UK may use single.

• US typically puts periods and commas inside quotation marks; UK often places them outside unless part of the quote.

• Usage/Grammar:

• Gotten is used in American English (He has gotten better), but not typically in British (He has got better).

• Collective nouns are singular in US (The team is winning) but often plural in UK (The team are winning).

plain english

clear, straightforward language that allows readers to understand a message easily and quickly.

Focuses on clarity, brevity, and simplicity—especially important in legal, technical, and professional writing.

Key principles:

• Use short, familiar words (help instead of assist).

• Write in the active voice (We mailed the check vs. The check was mailed).

global english (aka world/ international English)

the use of the English language as a global means of communication across countries and cultures. It emphasizes neutral, clear, and culturally sensitive language that is understandable to non-native speakers around the world.

Key characteristics:

• Avoids regional idioms, slang, and culturally specific references.

• Uses standard grammar and spelling, often favoring simplified forms.

• Focuses on clarity, consistency, and international readability.

Examples of changes for global clarity:

• Use elevator or lift → change to mechanical lift (if unclear in context)

• Avoid idioms like "beat around the bush" → say "avoid the main topic"

objective case

Used when the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

Example: The teacher saw him. (Him is the object of "saw")

Also used after prepositions: The gift is for her.

nominative (subjective) case

used when a pronoun is subject of the sentence (I, you, he, she, they, we)

Example: She went to the store. (She is the subject)

count nouns

things you can count individually; have singular and plural forms.

Use with: a, an, many, few, several, number of

Examples: book/books, apple/apples, chair/chairs

Correct: She has many books.

noncount (mass) nouns

refer to things that cannot be counted as individual units; Do not usually have a plural form.

Use with: much, little, some, a lot of, amount of

Examples: water, furniture, information, advice

Correct: There is little information available.

Some words can be both, depending on meaning:

Chicken (noncount when referring to meat: I ate chicken. / count when referring to animals: Three chickens were in the yard.)

rhetorical principles

guide how we craft and evaluate communication for effectiveness and persuasion.

Common principles include:

1. Purpose - What is the writer trying to achieve? (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain)

2. Audience - Who is the message for? What are their expectations, knowledge level, or values?

3. Context - What is the situation, medium, and setting for the communication?

4. Ethos (Credibility) - How does the writer establish trust or authority?

5. Pathos (Emotion) - How does the message appeal to emotions?

6. Logos (Logic) - What reasoning or evidence supports the message?

7. Tone & Style - Is the language appropriate for the audience and purpose?

genre

a category or type of writing defined by its purpose, form, style, and audience expectations. Genres help readers and writers understand the structure and conventions of a piece.

Common examples:

• Academic (essays, research papers)

• Business (memos, reports, proposals)

• Journalism (news articles, opinion pieces)

• Creative (fiction, poetry, screenplays)

• Technical (manuals, instructions)

Each genre follows specific stylistic and structural conventions, like tone, format, and level of formality.

Example: A research paper uses citations and formal tone; a blog post is more conversational.

audience

refers to the intended readers or viewers of a piece of writing or communication.

Understanding your audience helps shape:

• Tone (formal, casual, respectful)

• Style (technical, conversational, persuasive)

• Content (level of detail, examples, jargon used)

Types of audiences include:

• General - wide range of readers; clear, jargon-free language

• Specialized - knowledgeable group; can include technical terms

• Primary - main decision-makers or users

• Secondary - others who may be affected or interested

purpose

the reason a piece of writing exists—what the writer wants to achieve. Understanding purpose guides decisions about tone, structure, content, and style.

**A clear purpose helps keep writing focused and ensures it meets the audience's needs.

Common purposes include:

• To inform - provide facts or explanations (e.g., news article, report)

• To persuade - convince the reader of an idea or action (e.g., opinion piece, proposal)

• To entertain - engage or amuse the reader (e.g., fiction, personal essay)

• To instruct - give directions or steps (e.g., manual, recipe)

AI in editing

assist editors by improving efficiency, consistency, and accuracy.

Common uses of AI in editing:

• Grammar and spelling checks (e.g., Grammarly, Microsoft Editor),Style and tone suggestions, Readability analysis,

• Fact-checking assistance

• Consistency tracking (e.g., formatting, terminology, style guide compliance)

Benefits:

• Speeds up routine checks

• Flags potential errors or unclear wording

• Supports non-native English speakers

Limitations:

• Lacks full understanding of context, nuance, and audience-specific needs

• May miss subtleties in meaning or tone

• Can overcorrect or suggest changes that reduce clarity or voice

heading levels

used to organize content hierarchically in documents, making it easier to navigate and understand.

substantive editing

• Focuses on the overall structure, content, and clarity.

• Key tasks: reorganizing, rewriting for clarity, improving consistency, and ensuring the message is clear and engaging.

• Involves larger-scale changes, such as restructuring paragraphs, adding or removing content, or refining the argument/narrative.

copyediting

• Focuses on grammar, punctuation, spelling, and syntax.

• Corrects typographical errors and ensures clarity at the sentence level.

• Verifies consistency in spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, and formatting.

• Ensures compliance with the appropriate style guide (e.g., APA, Chicago Manual of Style).

stylistic editing

• Ensures that the writing is consistent in tone, style, and voice.

• Adjusts sentence structure for flow and makes the writing more engaging while adhering to the style guide.

• Fine-tunes the use of language to suit the intended audience.

proofreading

• final step in editing, focusing on correcting minor errors and ensuring the document is error-free.

• Looks for issues with spelling, punctuation, typographical errors, and formatting.

• Ensures the document is ready for publication or submission.

sentence structure

Sentence structure refers to the way words, phrases, and clauses are arranged to form meaningful sentences. It affects clarity, flow, and emphasis in writing.

sentence length

Sentence length affects readability, tone, and pacing.

Short sentences (10-15 words):

• Are clear and direct.

• Create emphasis and speed.

• Best for key points or simple ideas.

• Example: The report was late.

Medium sentences (15-25 words):

• Provide detail without overloading the reader.

• Are common in most professional writing.

• Example: The team submitted the final draft after two weeks of revisions and stakeholder feedback.

Long sentences (25+ words):

• Allow for complex ideas or layered meaning.

• Risk confusing readers if poorly punctuated or structured.

• Should be used sparingly and broken up if clarity suffers.

• Example: Although the committee reached a consensus late in the day, the final report was still submitted ahead of schedule thanks to their collaboration.

sentence style

the way a sentence is crafted—its rhythm, tone, complexity, and flow. It reflects the writer's voice and shapes how the message is perceived.

Key elements of sentence style:

• Tone: Formal, informal, conversational, academic, etc.

• Clarity: Avoid ambiguity and unnecessary complexity.

• Conciseness: Eliminate wordiness or redundancy.

• Rhythm & Flow: Use varied lengths and structures for a natural, readable cadence.

• Emphasis: Use word order and punctuation to highlight key points.

Stylistic choices to consider:

• Parallel structure: Keeps related ideas consistent (e.g., She likes hiking, biking, and swimming.)

• Active vs. passive voice: Active is typically clearer and more direct.

• Pacing: Use sentence length and punctuation to control how quickly the reader moves.

• Sentence openings: Vary how you begin sentences to avoid monotony.

• Tone shifts: Ensure tone matches the purpose and audience.

jargon

specialized language used by a specific profession, group, or industry.

It often includes technical terms, acronyms, or phrases that may be confusing to outsiders.

Example:

• Legal jargon: habeas corpus, tort, affidavit

• Tech jargon: bandwidth, front-end, API

When to use it:

• Only when writing for an audience that is familiar with the terminology.

• In professional or technical documents where precision is required.

When to avoid it:

• In general or public-facing writing

• When it obscures clarity or alienates readers

latinate words

• derived from Latin (often via French or Romance languages).

• Tend to be longer, more formal, abstract, so may sound elevated or distant to general readers.

• Common in academic, legal, and bureaucratic writing.

Examples: commence (start), assistance (help), terminate (end), utilize (use)

anglo-saxon

come from Old English roots and tend to be shorter, more direct, concrete.

**Common in everyday language and Plain English writing.

**Often feel more personal, immediate, and clear.

Examples: start, help, end, use

In editing:

• Prefer Anglo-Saxon words when aiming for clarity and accessibility.

• Use Latinate words when precision, nuance, or formality is needed—but sparingly.

strunk & white (the elements of style)

classic American grammar book focused on clear, concise, and effective writing that covers grammar, usage, composition, and style.

Known for its prescriptive rules and emphasis on economy and clarity.

Often criticized for being overly rigid, but still widely respected for teaching discipline and clarity in writing.

Famous principles include:

• "Omit needless words."

• "Use the active voice."

• "Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end."

• "Keep related words together."

signposting

the words and phrases that guide the reader through a text by showing its structure, direction, and relationships between ideas.

It improves clarity, coherence, and reader engagement—especially in academic and professional writing.

Types of signposting:

• Introduction signals - This essay will explore...

• Transition signals - However, In addition, On the other hand

• Sequencing - First, Next, Finally

• Summarizing - In conclusion, To summarize

• Emphasis - Most importantly, It is essential to note

Good signposting:

• Helps readers anticipate what's coming

• Connects ideas smoothly

• Reinforces the document's organization

point of view/ person (first,second,third)

1. First Person (I, we, me, us)

• Use: personal writing, reflective essays, some persuasive writing

• Effect: Creates a personal, subjective tone

• Example: I believe the policy needs to change.

2. Second Person (you, your)

• Use: instructional writing, marketing, some web content

• Effect: Directly addresses the reader; can feel engaging or commanding

• Example: You should back up your files regularly.

3. Third Person (he, she, it, they, one)

• Used for: formal, academic, and objective writing

• Effect: Creates distance and objectivity

• Example: The researcher found that the method was effective.

neologism

a newly coined word, expression, or usage that may not yet be fully accepted into mainstream language; Often arises from technological, cultural, or social changes.

Examples:

• Google (as a verb: to google something)

• Selfie, blog, binge-watch, fintech

• Ghosting (in relationships or communication)

In editing:

• Be cautious—consider audience, context, and clarity.

• Use a neologism if it's widely understood in your target field or audience.

• If not, consider explaining or defining it on first use.

• Check if it aligns with your style guide or publication standards.

portmanteau

a blend of two (or more) words and their meanings into a single new word; Common in creative writing, branding, and popular culture.

Examples:

• Brunch = breakfast + lunch

• Smog = smoke + fog

• Motel = motor + hotel

• Infomercial = information + commercial

In editing:

• Ensure they are understandable and appropriate for tone and audience.

• Consider clarity—some blends may be confusing or unfamiliar.

• Use sparingly in formal writing, unless well-established

justification/alignment

how text is positioned horizontally on the page or screen. It affects readability, visual appeal, and professionalism.

Types of alignment:

• Left-aligned (ragged right): Most common in English writing and easiest to read; used in business, academic, and web documents.

• Right-aligned (ragged left): Used for design emphasis (e.g., captions, sidebars), but less readable in body text.

• Center-aligned: Used for titles, headings, or invitations; avoid in long paragraphs—hard to follow.

• Justified (flush left and right): Creates clean margins on both sides; Common in books, newspapers, and formal documents; Can cause uneven word spacing and rivers of white space, which affect readability.

In editing/layout:

• Choose alignment based on audience, medium, and purpose.

• Ensure consistency throughout the document.

• Prioritize legibility over visual symmetry.

plurals

refer to the form of a noun that indicates more than one person, thing, or concept.

Basic Rules:

• Add -s to most nouns to make them plural.

  • Example: cat → cats, book → books

• Exceptions and irregular plural forms:

  • Nouns ending in -s, -x, -z, -ch, or -sh: Add -es.

  • Example: box → boxes, wish → wishes

• Nouns ending in a consonant + y: Change the y to i and add -es.

  • Example: city → cities, baby → babies

• Nouns ending in -f or -fe: Typically change the f/fe to -ves.

  • Example: wolf → wolves, leaf → leaves

• Irregular plurals: These do not follow a standard pattern.

  • Example: man → men, child → children, mouse → mice

acronym

a word formed by the initial letters or parts of a series of words, typically using the first letter of each word in a phrase or title

**pronounced as a WORD

Purpose: simplify long or complex terms, making them easier to remember and communicate.

Common rules:

All letters are capitalized if it represents a proper noun or formal name (e.g., NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

Some acronyms (e.g., scuba, radar) become so widely used that they are treated as regular words and may be written in lowercase.

initialism

a type of abbreviation formed by using the initial letters of a phrase or series of words
**pronounced letter by letter rather than as a single word.

Examples:

• FBI = Federal Bureau of Investigation

• USB = Universal Serial Bus

• CEO = Chief Executive Officer

• PDF = Portable Document Format

diacritical marks

symbols added to letters to indicate a specific pronunciation, stress, or meaning of a word. They are commonly used in foreign languages and some loanwords in English.

fiancé (pronounced: fee-ahn-say)

deadwood

unnecessary words, phrases, or content in writing that do not contribute meaning or clarity to the text. These can make the writing wordy, redundant, or overcomplicated.

Cliché

an overused expression or idea that has lost its originality and impact due to excessive use. It often feels predictable and uninspired.

euphemism

milder or less direct word or expression used in place of one that may be considered harsh, blunt, or unpleasant

often employed to soften the impact of a sensitive or uncomfortable subject.

• "Passed away" instead of "died"

• "Let go" instead of "fired"

• "In a better place" instead of "dead"

• "Economical with the truth" instead of "lying

cross-reference

reference to another section or part of a text that provides additional or related information

helps readers locate additional details, ensuring clarity and reducing redundancy in the document

The Associated Press Stylebook

style guide used by journalists, editors, and writers to ensure consistency in writing for news outlets. It provides guidelines on grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and word usage, and is widely used in newsrooms, PR firms, and by freelance writers.

• Numbers: Use figures for 10 and above, and spell out numbers below 10 (e.g., five, 15).

• Dates: Use month-day-year format (e.g., July 4, 2025).

• Time: Use a.m. and p.m., not AM or PM (e.g., 5 p.m., 10:30 a.m.).

• Commas: Avoid using the Oxford comma (e.g., John, Paul and George—no comma before "and").

• Titles: Capitalize titles only when they come before a name (e.g., President Biden, but Joe Biden, president).

The Chicago Manual of Style

a comprehensive guide to writing, editing, and citation that provides rules for grammar, punctuation, document formatting, and citation. It's widely used in book publishing, academic writing, and business writing.

• Numbers: Spell out numbers from one to ninety-nine. Use numerals for 100 and above (Ex: Five students vs. 125 students)

• Commas: Oxford comma allowed, unlike the AP Stylebook

• Titles of Works: Italicize titles of books, journals, movies, and other standalone works (Ex: The Great Gatsby, The New York Times)