Exam 1

What is the definition of psychology?

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Define science

the use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human behavior, and to draw conclusions

Define behavior

everything we do that can be directly observed

Define mental processes

the thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but that cannot be observed directly

What is critical thinking?

the process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

How does critical thinking help us make better decisions?

critical thinking reduces the likelihood that conclusions will be based on unreliable personal beliefs, opinions, and emotions

What is the empirical method?

gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

a German philosopher-physician who put together the pieces of the philosophy-natural science puzzle to create the academic discipline of psychology; his experiment’s study was about the workings of the brain

Who is William James?

founder of functionalism in psychology (the key question for psychology is not so much what the mind is, its structures, as what it’s for, its purpose or function); did not believe in the existence of rigid structures in the mind, but rather that the mind is flexible and fluid, characterized by constant change in response to a continuous flow of information from the world

What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism?

the former were looking inside the mind and searching for its structures, while the latter focused on human interactions with the outside world to understand the purpose of thoughts; the “what” of the mind vs. the “why”

What does Biological/neuroscience psychology focus on?

a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

What does Behavioral psychology focus on?

focuses on an organism’s visible behaviors, not thoughts or feelings

What does Psychodynamic psychology focus on?

focuses on unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives—such as the drive for sex—society’s demands, and early childhood experiences; sexual and aggressive impulses buried deep within the unconscious mind influence the way people think, feel, and behave

Who is Sigmund Freud?

the founder of the psychodynamic approach; theorized that early relationships with parents shape an individual’s personality; his theory led to psychoanalysis, which involves an analyst’s unlocking a person’s unconscious conflicts by talking with the individual about childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and feelings

What does Humanistic psychology focus on?

focuses on a person’s positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny

What does Cognitive psychology focus on?

focuses on the mental processes involved in knowing, how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems

What does Evolutionary psychology focus on?

focuses on ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

What does Sociocultural psychology focus on?

focuses on the influenced of social and cultural environments on behavior; understanding a person’s behavior requires knowing about the cultural context in which the behavior occurs

What is culture? What are some examples of culture?

the shared knowledge, practices, and attitudes of groups of people and can include language, customs, and beliefs about what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate

What does Biopsychosocial psychology focus on?

the belief that behavior is influenced by biological factors (such as genes), psychological factors (such as childhood experiences, learning histories, thoughts, and emotions), and sociocultural factors (such as gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status; all of these factors can combine and influence one another and behavior

What is a variable?

in a scientific inquiry, anything that can change

What is a theory?

a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations; leads to a hypothesis

What is a hypothesis?

a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory

What is an operational definition?

a definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study

Define descriptive research

describing some phenomenon—determining its basic dimensions and defining what the thing is, how often it occurs, and so on; it cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people’s behaviors and attitudes

What are three descriptive research methods?

surveys, interviews, and case studies

Define case study and provide an example

an in depth look at a single individual; an analysis of the spiritual leader Mahatma Ghandi to discover insights into how his positive spiritual identity developed, especially during his yourh

Define correlational research and provide an example

research that examines the relationships between variables and whose purpose is to examine whether and how those two variables change together

Correlation coefficiant

the degree of relationship between two variables is expressed as a numerical value and is most commonly represented by the letter r

Why are researchers not able to explain causation (X causes Y) using correlational research

correlation means only that the two variables change together. being able to predict one event based on the occurrence of another event does not necessarily tell us anything about the cause of either event

What is an experiment?

a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable

What does random assignment mean and why is it important?

researchers’ assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment’s results will be due to preexisting differences between groups

What are the two types of variables in an experiment?

independent and dependent

What is an independent variable?

a manipulated experimental factor; the variable the experimenter changes to see what the effects are

What is a dependent variable?

the outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes to the other variable

In an experiment, who is in the experimental group?

those who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents (the drugs or other treatment)

In an experiment, who is in the control group?

those who are treated in every way like the other group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable

Why does a researcher need both an experimental group and a control group?

the control group provides a comparison against which the researcher can test the effects of the independent variable

Define placebo

something that has no physiological effects, given to the participants in the control group so that they are treated identically to the experimental group except for the active agent

What is a placebo effect?

the situation where participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an experimental outcome

What is the difference between population and sample?

the entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions vs a subset chosen by the investigator to study

What does it mean to have a random sample?

provides much better grounds for generalizing the results to a population because it improves the chances that the sample is representative of the population

What is a naturalistic observation?

the observation of behavior in a real world setting

Who is Francis Cecil Sumner, Ph.D.? Iden6fy a few unique facts about. Dr. Sumner and how he contributed to the field of psychology.

studied philosophy, English, modern languages, and Greek; was then set to study psychology until he was drafted into WWI. eventually he did get his PHD in psychology, the first degree of its kind to be awarded to an African American; he then went on to teach at several historically black colleges and universities; spent time studying the psychology if religion, refuting racist psychology research, and mentoring and promoting the education of African Americans and specifically the psychology students

What is plasticity?

the brain’s special capacity for change

When is the brain more plastic?

What are the major divisions of the nervous system?

the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

Identify the two structures of the central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord

What is the peripheral nervous system? Describe its function.

the network of nervous that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body; it brings information to and from the brain and spinal cord and carries out the commands of the central nervous system to execute various muscular and glandular activities

Identify and describe the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system.

the somatic nervous system and automatic nervous system

Identify the two parts of the autonomic nervous system

the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

Describe the function of the sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress

Describe the function of the parasympathetic nervous system.

calms the body

What is stress? What are stressors? Provide examples of stressors.

the responses of individuals to environmental stressors, which are circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities and that cause physiological changes to ready the body to handle the assault of stress

Provide 2-3 examples of how the fight-or-flight reaction works in your body.

Your heart pounding, hands sweating, the sympathetic nervous system sending blood to the extremities to get ready for take off

Explain the fight-or-flight reaction to stress as one of the nervous system functions.

this reaction quickly mobilizes the body’s physiological resources to prepare the organism to deal with threats to survival; it can occur in reaction to any threat to personally important motived

Define neurons

the nerve cells that handle the information processing function

Define dendrites as a part of neurons

treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron’s cell body

Define cell body as a part of neurons

the part that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance

Define axon as a part of neurons

the part that carries information away from the cell body towards other cells

Define myelin sheath as a part of neurons

a layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons

Define synapse as a part of neurons

tiny spaces between neurons

What is the resting potential?

the stable negative charge of an inactive neuron; not transmitting information

What is the action potential?

the brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon; the “firing” of a neuron

What is the all or nothing principle?

once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing intensity

What are neurotransmitters?

chemical substances that are stored in very tiny spaces within the neuron’s terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: acetylcholine

the action of muscles, learning, and memory; people with Alzheimer’s have a decline in this neurotransmitter

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: GABA

it keeps neurons from firing and helps control the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to the next; anxiety is linked with low levels of this neurotransmitter

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: glutamate

exciting many neurons to fire and is especially involved in learning and memory; regulation of this neurotransmitter is a factor in anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: norepinephrine

inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system but excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract; too little of this neurotransmitter is associated with depression

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: dopamine

control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize rewards and other important signals in the environment; low levels of this neurotransmitter are associated with Parkinson’s disease

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: serotonin

involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning; lowered levels of this neurotransmitter are associated with depression

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: endorphins

natural opiates that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons and shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure; typically experienced during long distance running, giving birth, and when someone is in shock

What is the function of the following neurotransmitter: oxytocin

plays an important role in the experience of love and social bonding; typically released in people who have just given birth and also during the sexual orgasm

What is an agonist?

a drug that mimics a neurotransmitter’s effects by binding to a neurotransmitter’s receptors

What’s an antagonist?

A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effects

What is the function of the medulla?

controls many vital functions, such as breathing and heart rate, as well as regulates reflexes

What is the function of the cerebellum?

motor coordination; specifically leg and arm movements; also has a role in social thinking and social behavior

What is the function of the brain stem?

determine alertness and regulate basic survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

What is the function of the reticular formation?

involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise; also produces the neurotransmitter dopamine and is home to the brain’s reward system

What is the function of the limbic system?

is important in both memory and emotion

What is the function of the amygdala?

involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism’s survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals; involved in intense emotions such as fear, rage, and stress

What may happen if you have damage to the

amygdala?

it can cause animals to engage in inappropriate behavior such as attempting to eat, fight, or even mate with inappropriate and inanimate objects like a chair

What is the role of the hippocampus?

it has a special role in memory; determines what parts of information passing through should be “printed” into durable, lasting neural traces; also plays a role in getting memories out of storage

What can happen if your hippocampus is damaged?

new conscious memories after the damage cannot be retained

What is the function of the thalamus?

an essential relay station; it sorts information from the cerebellum and projects it to the motor area of the cerebral cortex

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

works with the cerebellum and cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements; allows people to engage in habitual behaviors like riding a bike

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

monitors three pleasurable activities: eating, drinking, and sexual behavior; also manages emotion, stress, and reward; helps direct the endocrine system; is the regulator of the body’s internal state

What is the cerebral cortex? What are the functions of the cerebral cortex?

the most recently developed part of the brain in the evolutionary scheme and is the outer layer of the brain; the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning take place here

Describe the functions of the frontal lobes

behind the forehead; involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles (think Phineas T. Gage)

Describe the functions of the parietal lobe

top-rear of the head; involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control

Describe the functions of the temporal lobes

just above the ears; involved in hearing, language processing, and memory

Describe the functions of the occipital lobes

back of the brain; respond to virtual stimuli and allow for processing of information about such aspects of visual stimuli such as their color, shape, and motion

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?

front of the parietal lobes; processes information about body sensations

What is the function of the motor cortex?

rear of the frontal lobes; processes information about voluntary movement

Who is Brenda Milner, Ph.D.? Identify a few unique facts about. Dr. Milner and how she contributed to the field of psychology.

originally went to school at a women’s college for math but switched to psychology and began studying the brain; joined the war effort during WWII through the lab she worked at until she got married and moved away; taught psychology at Cambridge while getting her Master’s and eventually working towards her doctorate; held positions at two different institutions and continued her research on the brain, specifically studying memory and damage to the temporal lobes; proved there are different memory systems (episodic memory and procedural memory); considered a founder of clinical neuropsychology and received many awards

What is the difference between sensation and perception?

the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy

VERSUS

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense

Explain bottom-up processing and give an example when you would use it.

sensory receptors register information about tjr external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation; listening to a song you’ve never heard before

Explain top-down processing and give an example when you would use it.

launched by cognitive processing at the brain’s higher levels that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world; listening to a song you’ve heard many times before

What are sensory receptors?

specialized cells that detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory nerves and the brain