Psych Unit 4

Concept

a mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli

Prototype Theory

the concept that we classify new objects by comparing them to the “best” or “most typical” member of a category (for example, our stereotype of a bird may be a robin, so we compare other things to how much they fit the stereotype)

Exemplar Theory

The concept that we make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories of other instances of that category (more extensive than the prototype theory)

Category-specific deficit

a neurological syndrome characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, even when the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed. (example: you can recognize foods but not animals)

Cognitive Psychology

emerged from behaviorism, and focuses on cognition (mental processes). Cognitive processes mediate the relationship between behavior and environment.

Knowledge vs Thinking

stored represetations vs manipulation of representations

Rational Choice Theory/ Thinking Slow

the classical view that we make decisions by determining 1)how likely something is to happen and 2) judging the value of the outcome. We multiply the 2. This theory doesn’t apply well.

Thinking Fast

instinctive and emotional decision making, can utilize heuristics

heuristics

shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions

Availability Heuristics

decisions are influenced by how readily examples are recalled (frequency influences how much we weigh them). Influences politics, advertising, and medicine

Representative Heuristic

making a judgement by comparing a person/ object to a prototype. (we ignore the statistical likelihood of the reality and instead use stereotypes).

Conjunction Fallacy

an extension of representative heuristics. the likelihood of multiple events happening together feels more likely than any of those events happening individually

Simulation heuristic

people express more regret over outcomes that are easier to imagine, or “simulate”. (think silver medalist vs bronze medalist)

confirmation bias

tendency to search for info that confirms your expectation (and ignore info that refutes it). Example: Rosenhan study

Framing effects

a bias whereby people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is framed. (is it a problem vs how big of a problem)

Anchoring

a type of framing effect. Setting a reference point (usually first piece of info) to simplify a situation. (Example: price jacking so you think you are getting a deal)

sunk cost fallacy

a person is reluctant to abandon a strategy if they are heavily invested in it (loss aversion). (example: concert tickets with bad weather)

optimism bias

people believe that, compared to other individuals, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future

affective forecasting

predicting how we feel with any given outcome. We are really bad at this! (money vs gratitude will give us happiness)

prospect theory

people choose to take on risks when evaluating potential losses and to avoid risks when evaluating potential gains.

means-ends analysis

a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between current situation and the desired goal

illusory truth effect

an error in reasoning that occurs when repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that people will judge the statement to be true

intelligence

the ability to use one’s mind to solve novel problems and learn from experience

Significance of Binet-Simon Scale

the first IQ test, created the idea of mental age and having a measure of performance. Created classifications of intelligence as well. Was used in the eugenics movement against people with disabilities.

Army Alpha/ Beta Tests

assessed cognitive abilities of recruits, ability to serve, and appropriate roles (WW1). (alpha for literate, beta for illiterate). Became the basis for the Wechsler intelligence tests.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Standardized score; a measure obtained by dividing a person’s score on an intelligence test by the average person’s score, and then multiplying by 100 ( so comparing 18 year olds has IQ score of 100). However, most people land around 70.

Historical Theories of Intelligence (3)

1. Overall/ general intelligence (g)

2. Two: fluid and crystalized intelligence

3. Multifactor: more modern

crystallized intelligence

the ability to apply knowledge that was acquired through experience (facts and vocab); ACT (achievement) test

fluid intelligence

natural ability to solve and reason about novel problems (time pressured abstract tests); SAT (aptitude) test

Gardners’s 8 intelligences Significance

Idea: we have independent skills that we all vary in, not overall (g). While accessible to public, has the least amount of support from research. Challenged overall intelligence model.

Gardners’s 8 intelligences

Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist

Intelligence Test structures

Most have a standardized score, with subtests and subscales. (subtest examples: vocab, comprehension, similarities, general knowledge; subscale examples:verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, etc).

Emotional intelligence

the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning

What is more helpful than a standardized score?

Profiles: strengths and weaknesses

Criticisms of Intelligence Tests (2)

1. Language and content bias: tests reflect culture of the people who wrote, administer, and take it

2. Stereotype threat: minorities will decrease in performance because of harmful stereotypes

Intellectual potential ___ over the life span

changes; we can increase/decrease in IQ

benefits and drawbacks of standardized tests for colleges

benefit: universal metric. Drawback: cultural bias, SES bias, test prep and writing

Intelligence tests uses

classification and prediction of future performance

Communication

the use of a language, gestures, facial expressions, etc to exchange info

language

a system for exchanging info (english, french, etc)

speech

the act of vocal communication

bottom-up processing in communication

takes sound bits and turns them into words and phrases

top-down processing in communication

takes previous knowledge of concepts and applies them to sound combinations

Language in the brain

Historical view: modular (Chomsky and pinker). Modern: systems and networks with a little modular

Phonemes

smallest components of a language; a sound

Phonemes in baby development

Babies can hear all phonemes, but as we experience our native languages, we lose the ability to hear some phonemes

Stages of phoneme development

1. Vocal exploration

2. babbling (with prosody)

3. morphemes (dada)

morphemes

smallest meaningful unit of language; usually root words with their affixes

Considering the “-s”, “cats” and “dogs” have the same morpheme but different phenomes. Why?

The “-s” adds the same meaning but it does not have the same pronunciation

Overgeneralization of morphemes

in development, kids tend to over apply the rules until they learn the exceptions (break vs breaked vs broke)

lexicon

vocabulary; always changing and is flexible. Reflects how languages are changing

Syntax

the structure of a language; how we order words to create meaning

universal syntax

Chomsky argued that structure rules are present in all languages and are universal (nativist view)

semantics

how words, phrases, and sentences communicate meaning. Goes beyond grammar rules and determines how meaning is formed.

branches of semantics

lexical (vocab), syntactic, irony, (and emphasis).

syntax ambiguity

when the structure creates confusion (example: slow children at play sign)

semantic ambiguity

takes advantage of how words/phrases can be understood multiple ways. Examples: row pronunciation (a line vs a fight); or syntax related (He caught a squirrel in pajamas)

prosody

patterns of stress and intonation in a language. Can change meaning (row- line vs fight), add meaning (emotion), or structure a conversation. Babies can bable with prosody

types of gestures (4)

• beats

• iconic (resembles object/action- heart, or kicking)

• emblems (represents a word- waving, thumbs up)

• metaphoric (abstract ideas- i’m “here” with my patience)

Behaviorist view of language acquisition

language is completely learned and taught (through reinforcement)- Skinner

Nativist view of language acquisition

the ability to understand and communicate through language is innate. There are language “modules/organs” in the brain. (Chomsky, Pinker)

Interactionist view of language acquisition

says nature and nurture work together to learn language. Depends on experience. Overall more modern outlook (bruner)

telegraphic speech

devoid of function morphemes and consist mostly of content words (“Throw ball” or “more milk”)

aphasia

difficulty in producing or comprehending language

Broca’s area vs Wernick’s area

production of language vs comprehension of language (aphasia can affect areas separatley)