EPSY 2130 EXAM 2

Behavioral views of learning

Learning is inferred from changes in observable behavior caused by external events.

Stimulus vs. response

A stimulus is an event that activates behavior; a response is the observable reaction to it.

Classical conditioning

Learning by associating a stimulus with an automatic, usually involuntary response.

Classical conditioning — scenario

A child hears a loud noise whenever a white rat appears and eventually fears the rat alone. The rat became a conditioned stimulus, and fear became the conditioned response.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which deliberate behavior is shaped by its consequences.

Reinforcement vs. punishment

Reinforcement increases the behavior that came before it; punishment decreases the behavior that came before it.

Positive vs. negative consequences

Positive means a stimulus is added; negative means a stimulus is removed. These words do not mean good or bad.

Positive reinforcement — scenario

A teacher gives a student a sticker after a correct answer, and the student answers more often. A desirable stimulus was added to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement — scenario

A teacher says homework will be canceled if the class gets along on the playground. Removing an unwanted task is intended to increase the desired behavior.

Positive punishment — scenario

A student receives extra homework after disrupting class, and disruptions decrease. An unpleasant consequence was added to decrease behavior.

Negative punishment — scenario

A student loses screen time after breaking a rule, and the behavior decreases. A preferred stimulus was removed.

Classical vs. operant extinction

Classical extinction occurs when a conditioned response weakens as the association is no longer reinforced. Operant extinction occurs when a behavior stops receiving its usual consequence and may decrease.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing every response; useful when establishing a new behavior.

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after a set amount of time.

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after changing or unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses.

Identify the schedule — scenario

A student gets a reward after every fifth completed problem. This is a fixed-ratio schedule because the reward follows a set number of responses.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

Applying behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior: identify the behavior, assess why it occurs, observe it, plan an intervention, and track and adjust results.

Premack principle

Use a highly preferred activity to encourage participation in a less preferred activity.

Premack principle — scenario

Students who complete a less-liked group activity get to watch a movie afterward. The preferred movie is used to encourage the less-preferred activity.

Why punishment alone is limited

Punishment does not teach the student what behavior to do instead and can harm caring relationships; attention can accidentally reinforce misbehavior.

Overjustification effect

Offering an external reward for an activity someone already enjoys can reduce their intrinsic interest in doing it without the reward.

Overjustification — scenario

A child paints for fun, but after receiving candy for each painting, paints only when candy is offered. The reward may have undermined intrinsic motivation.

Self-management

Taking responsibility for one's own actions through goal setting, monitoring/evaluation, and self-reinforcement.

Enactive vs. observational learning

Enactive learning comes from doing and experiencing consequences; observational learning comes from watching others and adapting their behavior.

Social Cognitive Theory

A theory emphasizing beliefs, thoughts, motivation, self-reflection, and the interaction of people with their environments.

Human agency

The belief that one can influence or control one's life and work toward goals.

Triadic reciprocal causality

Person factors, behavior, and environment continuously influence one another and are influenced by one another.

Triadic reciprocal causality — scenario

A student's confidence affects how much they practice; practice changes their performance; performance changes how the teacher responds. This is reciprocal interaction among person, behavior, and environment.

Self-efficacy

A judgment about whether you can successfully complete a specific task.

Self-efficacy vs. self-esteem

Self-efficacy is task-specific belief in capability; self-esteem is a broader sense of personal worth. They are not the same thing.

Mastery experience

A source of self-efficacy based on one's own direct experience performing a task.

Mastery experience — scenario

A student struggles in chemistry, receives support, learns the material, and later succeeds on a test. Their own successful performance is a mastery experience.

Vicarious experience

Building belief in one's capability by observing someone else succeed, especially someone perceived as similar.

Vicarious experience — scenario

A student who doubts they can solve a math problem watches a similar classmate solve it and thinks, 'Maybe I can do it too.' This is a vicarious experience.

Social/verbal persuasion

Evaluative messages that communicate information about someone's capabilities.

Physiological/emotional arousal

Bodily reactions and emotions that influence how capable someone feels.

Physiological arousal — scenario

A student notices their heart racing before a test, uses breathing to calm down, succeeds, and realizes anxiety can be managed. This involves physiological/emotional arousal.

Self-regulation

Activating or sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions to work toward goals.

Self-regulated learning

Self-regulation specifically directed toward learning goals.

Forethought phase

Before a task: use prior experiences to set goals, plan, and choose strategies.

Performance phase

During a task: use strategies, stay engaged, and monitor progress.

Self-reflection phase

After a task: evaluate performance and reflect on what happened and why.

Self-regulated learning — scenario

After a test, Erin compares her score with her goal and adjusts some strategies without abandoning everything. This is the self-reflection phase.

Executive functions in self-regulation

Inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility support self-regulation.

Self-control vs. emotional self-regulation

Self-control manages attention, emotion, and behavior amid competing goals; emotional self-regulation involves identifying and managing emotions in social contexts.

Self-instruction

Talking oneself through the steps of a task to guide behavior.

Cognitive behavior modification

Using behavioral and cognitive principles—especially self-talk—to change one's own behavior.

Co-regulation vs. shared regulation

Co-regulation: students gradually learn regulation skills from peers through observation, feedback, and coaching. Shared regulation: teachers and students jointly regulate learning with prompts, reminders, and guidance.

Motivation

The process of initiating, directing, and maintaining goal-oriented behavior.

Maslow's hierarchy — key idea

A model proposing that people have needs ranging from basic survival needs to self-actualization; however, people do not always follow the hierarchy or pursue only one need at a time.

Self-determination theory: three needs

Competence (feeling capable), autonomy (having choice/control), and relatedness (belonging and connection).

Self-determination — scenario

Clara wants to read another book related to the class topic, but the teacher requires everyone to read the same book. The need most directly frustrated is autonomy.

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation means doing an activity because it is rewarding or interesting in itself; extrinsic motivation means doing it for an external outcome or pressure.

Amotivation

Lack of intention or engagement, associated in the notes with negative emotions, poorer academic achievement, and maladaptive learning strategies.

Self-determination continuum

Integrated regulation: activity serves intrinsic and extrinsic reasons; identification: activity supports a personally important goal; introjected regulation: activity avoids guilt or negative self-perception; external regulation: behavior is controlled by outside factors.

Achievement goals: mastery approach

Aiming to learn, understand, improve, or master a task.

Achievement goals: mastery avoidance

Trying to avoid misunderstanding, failing to learn, or not mastering a task.

Achievement goals: performance approach

Trying to outperform others, be superior, or appear especially capable.

Achievement goals: performance avoidance

Trying to avoid looking incompetent or inferior compared with others.

Achievement goal — scenario

A student wants a higher grade than a competing classmate. This is a performance-approach goal because success is defined relative to another person.

Work-avoidance goal

Trying to do as little work as possible.

Social goal

A goal focused on relationships, getting along, making friends, or being seen as responsible.

Expectancy-value-cost theory

Motivation depends on expectation of success, the value of success, and the perceived cost of pursuing it; the notes summarize behavioral intention as E × (V − C).

Expectancy, value, and cost

Expectancy: perceived likelihood of success. Value: how much the outcome is wanted or matters. Cost: perceived effort, risk, or what must be given up.

Expectancy-value-cost — scenario

A student expects to do well and values the course, but believes it will take so much time that they must give up other priorities. High cost can reduce intention despite high expectancy and value.

Interest/intrinsic value vs. attainment vs. utility vs. cost

Interest: do I enjoy it? Attainment: does it matter to my identity? Utility: is it useful for my goals? Cost: what effort, risk, or alternative do I give up?

Attribution theory

People explain the causes of success and failure; those explanations affect expectations, motivation, and future engagement.

Three attribution dimensions

Stability: likely to happen again or not. Locus: internal or external. Controllability: whether the person can do something about it.

Attribution — scenario

A student says, 'I failed because I'm not intelligent, and intelligence can't change.' The cause is internal, stable, and uncontrollable.

Adaptive attribution for failure

Attributing failure to an internal, controllable cause—such as strategy or effort—can encourage trying a different approach next time.

Learned helplessness

A tendency to attribute failure to uncontrollable factors and feel that trying will not change the outcome.

Self-handicapping

Creating or claiming an obstacle so a possible failure cannot be attributed to low ability.

Attributional retraining

Teaching students to reframe explanations of setbacks in more adaptive ways, such as focusing on changeable strategies.

Fixed vs. growth mindset

Fixed mindset: ability is innate and unchangeable. Growth mindset: ability can improve over time through learning and effective strategies.

Person praise vs. process praise

Person praise evaluates a trait ('You're so smart'); process praise focuses on effort, strategy, or the learning process ('That strategy helped you improve').

Praise and mindset — scenario

A teacher says, 'You must be so smart!' after a student succeeds. This is person/intelligence praise and is associated in the notes with a more fixed mindset.

Four phases of interest development

Triggered situational interest → maintained situational interest → emerging individual interest → well-developed individual interest.

Interest development — scenario

A surprising classroom demonstration briefly grabs a student's attention. This is triggered situational interest, the first phase.

How teachers can foster motivation

Support autonomy, competence, and belonging; promote mastery goals and growth mindset; build expectancy and value; connect learning to students' lives and spark interest.

Flow

A state of deep immersion in a challenging task when the challenge level matches the person's skills.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking and learning.

Knowledge vs. regulation of cognition

Knowledge of cognition means knowing about oneself as a learner and knowing strategies and when to use them. Regulation of cognition means planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning.

Metacognition — scenario

Before studying, a student chooses a strategy; during studying, checks understanding; afterward, evaluates what worked. This is regulation of cognition.

Retrieval practice

Actively bringing information to mind—for example, explaining it to someone else—instead of only rereading notes.

K-W-L-H strategy

K: What do I know? W: What do I want to know? L: What did I learn? H: How did I find the information?

Algorithm vs. heuristic

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure likely to work when applied correctly to the right problem; a heuristic is a mental shortcut used when a clear algorithm may not be available.

Means-end analysis

A heuristic that breaks a larger goal into smaller subgoals.

Working backwards

Starting from the desired end state and reasoning backward toward the starting point.

Analogical thinking

Using a solution or pattern from a similar situation to help solve a new problem.

Availability heuristic

Judging or deciding using information that comes readily to mind.

Representative heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something by how closely it matches a prototype or typical example.

Functional fixedness

Seeing an object only in terms of its usual or intended purpose.

Functional fixedness — scenario

A student cannot think to use a coin as a screwdriver because they only see it as money. This illustrates functional fixedness.

Belief perseverance vs. confirmation bias

Belief perseverance means holding onto a belief despite contradictory evidence; confirmation bias means seeking or favoring information that supports one's existing view.

Transfer and overlearning

Transfer is using previously learned knowledge in a new context. Overlearning is continuing to practice after mastery so a skill becomes more automatic.

Objectivist vs. constructivist views of knowledge

Objectivism treats knowledge as an external world with clear answers; constructivism emphasizes that learners actively construct knowledge, which can change.

Radical constructivism

The view that knowledge is individually constructed, making it difficult to claim another person's understanding is simply right or wrong.

Cognitive vs. social constructivism

Cognitive constructivism emphasizes knowledge constructed within the individual and is associated with Piaget; social constructivism emphasizes knowledge built through social interaction and is associated with Vygotsky.