Baylor Psychology 1305 Lawrence FINAL

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables; the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes us an active agent

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to is participants

biological perspective

concerned with the links between biology and behavior

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptors sites on the receiving neuron, thereby whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within" natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and spinal cord

sensory neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that control the body's skeletal muscles

automatic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (arousing)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conversing its energy (calming)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the kneejerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands; travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

tissue destruction

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; these waves are measured y electrodes placed on the scalp

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes wile the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; shows brain anatomy

fMRI

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; shows brain function

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla, relay station

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. Voluntary movement estimates/judgement of time, stores information outside awareness.

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two limabean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities , helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward, hunger

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also pay a role in learning and thinking

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and judgments

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them. (used to treat epilepsy)

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM s

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state 20min

sleep

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, hibernation, or general anesthesia

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep NREM-3

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind