UCR Anthro002 Final

Gametes

Sexual reproductive cells; eggs and sperm that have a haploid number of chromosomes and that can unite with gametes of the opposite type to form a new organism

Determines the combination of chromosomes in the offspring

Sex cells, sperm in males & ova in females

The root of gamete production is in the chromosomes

Haploid (23 chromosomes)

Gamete

The genetic code is transmitted from parent to offspring via female/male gametes

Contain HALF the chromosomes that are in somatic cells

Are HAPLOID - containing one chromosome from each pair; single set of unpaired chromosomes

Haploid - 23 individual chromosomes, no pairs

Gametes are produced via MEIOSIS - does not result in identical copies of parent cell/DNA

Benefit of tools and toolmaking

Able to pick off food from bones, and defense

Acheulian Complex

Culture associated w/ H. erectus, including handaxes and other stone tools; more refined than earlier Oldowan tools.

More functions and greater range of functions

Handaxe used for cutting, scraping, etc.

Used to kill larger animals

Paleoindians

Earliest hominin inhabitants of the Americas; likely migrated from Asian and associated with Clovis and Folsom stone tool cultures in NA and comparable tools in SA

Clovis

Early Native American (Paleoindian), culture of NA, known for large, fluted, bifacial stone projectile points used as spear points for big-game hunting

Folsom (Folsom Point)

Early Native American (immediately following Clovis), culture of NA, known for large, fluted, bifacial projectile points used as spear points for big-game hunting

Levallois

Complex and distinctive method of stone tool production used during Middle Paleolithic, in which the core was prepared and flakes removed from the surface before the final tool was detached from the core

Mousterian Period: Stone culture for Neandertals, which produced tools using Levallois technique

Uses flint stones

Pebble Tools

Earliest stone stools, simple flakes knocked off to produce an edge used for cutting and scraping

Oldowan Complex

Stone tool culture associated w/ H. habilis and possibly Au. garhi, including primitive chopper tools

Lower Paleoithic period (oldest part)

Suggest the first stone tools were created and used

Chopper, flake tool

Strepsirhine /Prosimians

Smaller brain and better smell

Wet nose and longer snout

Lemurs/Lorises/Galagos (Tarsiers are Prosimians)

Haplorhine /Anthropoids

Monkeys/Apes (Tarsiers are Haplorhines)

Fully Enclosed Orbits

Scientific method

→ An empirical research method in which data (evidence) are gathered from observations of phenomena, hypotheses are formulated and tested, and conclusions are drawn that validate or modify the original hypothesis (figure out if right or wrong)

Observations → Hypotheses → Predictions ("If..then..") → Test (observations, experiments)

Steps:

Hypothesis is formed

Hypothesis is tested

Observations are explained

Results of future, repeated investigations are predicted

Theory is accepted

Arboreal hypothesis

Proposes that primates unique traits are an adaptation to living in trees

Varied diet

Brachiation

Swinging from branches and leaping to branches

Grasping hands/feet

Binocular vision - forward facing eyes

Greater depth perception

Smell no longer necessary

Greater intelligence

Opposable thumb and feet

bipedalism characteristics

placement of foramen magnum,

size/shape of pelvis,

foot arch

S-spine

Not an opposable big toe

Longer legs relative to bod

inward knees

Bipedalism Advantages

Ability to travel and see greater distances due to upright poster and longer legs, greater ease to transporting food, ability to run long distances, freeing of hands for tool and holding objects, can pick fruits at lower levels, dissipates heat

Adaptive radiation

Caused by mutations and this mutation causes the population with the new mutations to flourish

→ out of one species branch multiple closely related species; common ancestor

Ex: Different species of finches all derived from a single common ancestor

bipedalism disadvantages

Exposure to predators from standing upright, standing and carrying heavy objects can cause back injury, can cause enormous burden on the circulatory system as it moves blood from the legs to the heart (can cause varicose veins), if one leg/foot is injured the ability for movement is severely reduced, constricted birth canal

Diastema

the gap in the teeth for canines.

Sharpened the teeth when opening and closing the mouth, by grinding the teeth together to fit in the diastema(gap) [honing complex].

Sexual dimorphism

Refers to a difference in physical attributes between the males & females of a species

Male primates: dominance over other males for mates

Female primates: dominance over other females for resources

Lovejoy

found that hominids had a decrease in sexual dimorphism

More cooperation than the competition in hominids than other primates which caused a decrease in sexual dimorphism

Refers to a difference in physical attributes between the males & females of a species

Male primates: dominance over other males for mates

Female primates: dominance over other females for resources

Evolution

Change in species due to random mutations on a population over several generations

Mitosis

creates 2 diploid cells (46 chromosomes each).

Diploid cells are not sex cells, (could be muscle or skin etc.)

meiosis

creates 4 haploid cells (23 chromosomes each).

Haploid cells are gametes, or sex cells

Patchy forest hypothesis

Rodman & Mchenry suggest that bipedalism arose in areas where the forest was becoming fragmented

As the forest became patchy & food was more dispersed, early hominins were forced to develop bipedal locomotion

Allowing them to feed in the trees and on the ground

Traits

Ex :peripheral vision, opposable thumbs, bipedalism

Alleles

can be used in punnett square to determine its outcome that will be displayed in the offspring (dominant or recessive)

Alternative form of a gene

Genes

Chromosomes

There are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

There can be mutations

Down syndrome: extra chromosome in the 21 pair

Turner syndrome: missing a chromosome in the 23 pair

Theory

After a hypothesis is made and tested, it can then be turned into a theory once supported by evidence.

Bilophodont molars

Old world monkeys had this

Molars that have four cusps oriented in two parallel rows, resembling ridges or 'lophs'.

This can be contrasted to modern humans' Y5 molars which have a Y-shaped valley on molars

Butchering (cutmarks)

Evidence of hunting in Neanderthal regions because of scrape marks on bones

Shovel-shaped incisors in modern populations

Modern populations some people have different types of teeth

Commonly found in the population of Native Americans and Asians

Benefits of fire

Helped with expansion to colder regions

Allows for cooking of meat which eases chewing and digestion

H erectus body and brain size (what allowed this to happen)

They were the ones with the fire, so with the cooked their food allowing them to focus more on their brain size.

Also, they were fully erect (standing up and bipedal) allowed their bodies to grow. -- arboreal lifestyle was something of the past

Shorter legs and longer arms, stocky humans...

Compared to homo habilis, teeth became smaller, face smaller but the brain got larger, thicker skull to protect brain, arms got shorter, legs got longer, body got taller

Basic Traits

No chins

Shovel Shaped Incisors

Thick Cranial

Brow Ridges

Social learning

The capacity to learn from other humans, enabling the accumulation of knowledge across many generations

Also present in nonhuman primates & other primates

The juvenile chimp learning from its mother how to break nuts with stones.

Thick enamel

Australopithecines would have "thick" enamel and is a derived character for this group due to increased crushing and grinding and adaptation to savanna habitat.

The enamel thickness and tooth size is directly related to the increase in masticatory loading (chewing hard objects)

First hominid to leave Africa

Homo Erectus

What are the defining characteristics of hominins?

Bipedal locomotion

S-shaped spine

Non Honing Complex

Larger brain case

Robust

Eat many tough grasses

vs. Gracile - varied diet

scientists found that they had a varied diet because the enamel on the teeth had traces of carbon from plants

Australopithecine characteristics

Simply put, a combination of ape and human

Bipedal, but like apes they had small brains. Their canine teeth were smaller than those found in apes, and their cheek teeth were larger than those of modern humans.

what does australophithecus mean?

australophithecus means "southern ape" because they were found in South Africa.

when was Australopithecine alive?

Lived 1.4 - 4.4 mya during Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs.

Most famous Australopithecus afarensis

Lucy

Lucy's era and characteristics

"Lucy" was dated at 3.2 mya

Titled femurs

Short broad pelvis

Small brain

Brow ridge

Sexually dimorphic

Sagittal crest

Au. anamensis

Earliest Australopithecus is Au. anamensis. (4.2-3.9 mya)

They had primitive dentition

Thick tibia

Small brain

Kenyanthropus platyops

(3.5 mya)

Pronounced brow ridge

Flat faced

Small molar teeth

other australophithecus

Aus. Garhi

(2.5 mya)

Small brain

Prognathic Face

Large canines

Sagittal crest

Tool use

other australophithecus

Au Africanus

other australophithecus

Slight brain increase

Rounded vault

Less projecting face

Big Jaw (?)

Au. Sediba

(1.97-1.78 mya)

Discovered in 2010

SLight brain increase

Characteristic similar to homo, characteristic are pelvis, face & dental

other australophithecus

"Robust" Australopithecus or Paranthropus

Hard object feeding

Sagittal crest

Large cheekbones (Zygomatic arch)

Extreme postorbital constriction

Has subunits of

Aus. (p.) aethiopicus, Aus. (p.) boisei, Aus. (p.) robustus

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

P2+2Pq+q2=1

P2 is the homozygous dominant

q2 is the homozygous recessive

2pq is the heterozygous

The alleles remain stable, there is no change in the next generation

No gene flow, No mutation

ABO blood system

A and B blood types are dominant, while O is recessive

AB is its own blood type

AA and AO is A phenotype

BB and BO is B phenotype

OO is recessive and very uncommon

Paleozoic Era

The 1st major era of geological time

542-254 mya

Fish, reptiles & insects

Mesozoic Era

2nd major era

245-66 mya

Characterized by the emergence/extinction of dinosaurs

Cenozoic Era

Era lasting from 66 mya until the present

Encompassing the radiation & proliferation of mammals such as humans & other primates

Anthropocene Epoch

age of humans

modern humans (homo sapiens)

Bipedal

Sexually dimorphic

Longer legs than arms

High forehead, Round skull

Has Chin

Allen's rule

longer limbs in warmer weather

Bergman's rule

stockier, shorter stature for people living in colder regions to keep their core warm

Wolf's law

when you use your bones they become stronger

Disease

Periosteal reaction (aka bone build up)

Caused by staph bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus

Bone deformation (ex: Treponematosis)

The increase in size and density of the population had enormous / negative effects on people's health

Humans began living in crowded & unsanitary conditions which increased the levels of infectious microorganisms and led to disease outbreaks

Linked to agriculture and increased food production during the Holocene

H. rudolfensis

(larger brain, later, weak/no supraorbital torus, wide face, 3-rooted premolars, hindfoot and leg more modern looking than H. habilis)

Homo rudolfensis is the morph between Homo and Australopithecus

Branches of Anthropology

Cultural anthropology: the study of living societies and their cultures;

Biological anthropology: the study of human origins and biological adaptations - includes genetics, paleontology, and primatology; Archeology: the study of the human past through material remains, including buildings, artifacts, writing;

Linguistics: the comparative study of languages.

DNA (think DOUBLE!)

a DOUBLE stranded molecule that contains genetic code; the main component of chromosomes

RNA

a SINGLE stranded molecule; THREE (3) forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis (MRNA, TRNA, RRNA)

mRNA- messenger RNA: encodes amino acid sequence of polypeptides

tRNA - transfer RNA -bring amino acid to ribosome during translation

rRNA - ribosome RNA- associated with a making protein synthesis

Human height over the last two centuries

went up

index fossil

Fossil that has known date of discovery in which scientists can compare other fossils to date

Lactose absorption in humans

Enzyme in the body called lactase, which breaks down the lactose in milk, for when you drink your mother's milk. As you get older it is natural to have less lactose in colon.

Domestication and food production

10,000 years ago, or 8000BCE

In turkey first was found wheat.

2ndly found in central Mexico, found maize.

(Agricultural Revolution) brought about through environmental change and population increase

Cons:

Stunted child development

Overcrowding from population growth.

Iron deficiency

Increased chance of disease

Oldowan

Homo Habilis

Known for oldowan stone tools (flakes of stone chipped off)

Acheulean

Homo Erectus

Culture associated w/ H. erectus, including handaxes and other stone tools; more refined than earlier Oldowan tools

Mousterian

Neanderthals

Came from Europe

The stone culture in which they used stone tools is called: Mousterian

Levallois technique

technique of the chipping of rocks against each other to make sharper rocks and tools

Neandertal

27,000 - 100,000 years ago

Lived in cold climates

Wider nasal aperture

Large infraorbital (allows more blood flow)

They created tools

Chinless, double arched brow ridge, got bigger brains, no canine fossa

Were carnivores

meat diet

less of carbon 13

Neandertal Anatomy

double arched brow bridge, no canine fossa, long and narrow vault, midfacial projection, large juxtamastoid eminence, 1600 cc crancial capacity (male), and 1300 cc crancial capacity (female)

genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

gene flow

movement of alleles from one population to another

Mutation (3 types)

Bad mutations: proteins stop working causes reduction in fitness w/ lethal results

Natural mutations: No change in proteins w/ no effect on reproduction

Good mutation: Increase protein production, enhances fitness

Founder effect

occurs when a new colony is started by a few members of the original population. This small population size means that the colony may have:

reduced genetic variation from the original population.

a non-random sample of the genes in the original population

Natural Selection (3 patterns)

Directional: Favors extreme form of trait

Stabilizing: Favors avg form of trait

Disruptive: Pattern of variation is discontinuous

Multiregional hypothesis

An evolutionary hypothesis that modern humans originated through a process of simultaneous local transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens throughout the inhabited world.

Out-of-africa theory

the hypothesis that states that modern Homo sapiens first evolved in Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing the indigenous archaic Homo sapien populations (Neandertals) living on these two continents.

Earliest from genus Homo

H. habilis which was only found in parts of East Africa

Reduced facial size

Some brain enlargement

Parabolic palate

The proceeding genus homo: H. Erectus which was found all throughout the world.

Mendel and traits

Studied peas and their genetics

Bred two pea plants together to show dominant and recessive traits

Also based on parents plants, it showed if the plant was homozygous or heterozygous along with dominant or recessive

H. erectus traits

Fully bipedal

Larger body

Smaller teeth

Bigger brain

Longer legs/Shorter arms

No chin

Shovel shaped incisors

Darwin

Studied the finches in the Galapagos islands.

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

Natural selection

cline

a gradual change in phenotype from one population to the next

Deme

A local population of organisms or members of a species that have similar genes, interbreed, and produce offspring.

microevolution

Small scale evolution, such as changes in allele frequency, that occurs from one generation to the next.

macroevolution

Large scale evolution, such as a speciation event, that occurs after hundreds or thousands of generations.

Nicknames

Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis)

Hobbit (Homo floresiensis)

Garhi (Australopithecus garhi) - known for tool usage

Hominid Timeline

Pliopithecus

Australopithecus

Homo Erectus

Early Homo Sapiens

Neanderthal

Modern Homo Sapiens

Lamarckism

the hypothesis that an organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime to its offspring.

relative dating

Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock

absolute dating

A technique used to determine the actual age of a fossil

Non-radiometric Methods of dating

utilize process to assess a date (e.g. tree dating)

Radiometric Methods of dating

utilize radioactive decay of isotopes from one form to another

Through radioactive isotopes

Cons: it costs a lot

Eugene Dubois

Studied fossils instead of living animals to see the past

He uncovered what he believed to be the remains of a human ancestor. He named his find Homo erectus, meaning human who stands upright. It was nicknamed Java Man.

Homo Erectus body manipulation

They had body manipulation for rituals or cannibalism

Defleshed other homo erectus

New World vs. Old World Monkeys

Old world:

has a bigger snout with a long nose

2-1-2-3

New world:

Wider noses

Prehensile Tail

2-1-3-3