AP PSYCHOLOGY — RESEARCH METHODS & DATA INTERPRETATION

What is psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What is basic research?

Research conducted to increase general knowledge and understanding, without necessarily having an immediate practical application.

What is applied research?

Research designed to solve practical, real-world problems.

What is a theory? ⭐

A broad explanation of behavior or phenomena that is supported by evidence.

What is a hypothesis? ⭐

A specific, testable prediction about a relationship between variables.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be falsifiable? ⭐

There must be a possible observation or result that could show the hypothesis is wrong.

What is an operational definition? ⭐⭐⭐

A precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a particular study.

Why are operational definitions important?

They make abstract concepts measurable and allow researchers to replicate the study.

Example of an operational definition for attention? ⭐

The number of correct responses on a computerized attention task.

What is a variable?

Anything that can vary or change in a study.

What are the four major non-experimental research methods on your notes?

Case study, naturalistic observation, correlational study, and meta-analysis.

What research method studies one person, group, or case in great detail?

Case study.

Main weakness of a case study?

Results may not generalize well to the larger population.

What is naturalistic observation? ⭐

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without manipulating variables

Example of naturalistic observation?

Observing how children interact on a playground without interfering.

What does correlational research examine? ⭐⭐⭐

The relationship between two variables.

What can a correlational study tell us?

Whether two variables are related and the direction/strength of that relationship.

What can a correlational study NOT establish? ⭐⭐

Cause and effect.

What type of research can establish cause and effect? ⭐⭐⭐

An experiment.

What is a meta-analysis? ⭐

A method that combines results from multiple studies to reach one overall conclusion or estimate.

Why is meta-analysis useful?

It combines evidence from multiple studies rather than relying on one study.

What is a positive correlation? ⭐

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase as well.

What is a negative correlation? ⭐

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

What does zero/no correlation mean?

There is no consistent relationship between the two variables.

What does the correlation coefficient (r) measure? ⭐⭐⭐

The strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

What is the possible range of r? ⭐

-1 to +1.

What does r = +1 mean?

Perfect positive correlation.

What does r = -1 mean?

Perfect negative correlation.

What does r = 0 mean?

no linear correlation.

What does the closer r is to +1 or -1 mean? ⭐

The stronger the relationship.

What does the closer r is to 0 mean?

The weaker the relationship.

Can correlation prove causation? ⭐⭐⭐

NO

Why can’t correlation prove causation? ⭐⭐⭐

Because of the third-variable problem and the directionality problem.

What is the third-variable problem? ⭐⭐⭐

A third variable may be responsible for the relationship between two correlated variables.

Example of a third variable problem?

Ice cream sales and drowning deaths may correlate because hot weather increases both.

What is the directionality problem? ⭐⭐⭐

When two variables are correlated, it may be unclear which variable causes the other.

Example of the directionality problem?

Does good sleep improve mood, or does better mood lead to better sleep?

What are the two major problems with correlation? ⭐⭐⭐

Third-variable problem and directionality problem.

What should you NEVER conclude from a correlational study? ⭐

That one variable caused the other.