explanations of secularisation

• Sociologists have developed a variety of theories and concepts to explain the process of secularisation.

• A common theme is m____, involving the decline of t____ and its replacement with r____ and s____ ways of thinking that tend to undermine r____.

• Secularisation theory also emphasises the effect of s____ c____ on religion. For example, i____ leads to the break up of s____ c____ that were held together by common r____ b____

• Sociologists have developed a variety of theories and concepts to explain the process of secularisation.

• A common theme is modernisation, involving the decline of tradition and its replacement with rational and scientific ways of thinking that tend to undermine religion.

• Secularisation theory also emphasises the effect of social change on religion. For example, industrialisation leads to the break up of small communities that were held together by common religious beliefs

• A major theme in explanations of secularisation is the growth of s____ and r____ d___

• Not only are people increasingly d____ in terms of their o____ and c___ backgrounds but r_____ i____ are much more varied

• Secularisation theorists argue that the growth of d____ has undermined both the authority of r____ i____ and the credibility of r____ b____.

• As a result of these changes religious practice, such as churchgoing, has also declined.

• A major theme in explanations of secularisation is the growth of social and religious diversity

• Not only are people increasingly diverse in terms of their occupational and cultural backgrounds but religious institutions are much more varied

• Secularisation theorists argue that the growth of diversity has undermined both the authority of religious institutions and the credibility of religious beliefs.

• As a result of these changes religious practice, such as churchgoing, has also declined.

Max Weber: rationalisationj

• In relation to secularisation, what does rationalisation refer to?

• Instead of relying on r____ e___ or t____, people start using r___, l___, and s___ t^^^^ to understand the world and make decisions.

• Many sociologists such as M___ W___ (1905) have argued that W____ society has undergone a process of r_____ in the last few centuries.

• He argued that the P_____ R___ begun by who in the __th century started a process of rationalisation of life in the West.

• P____ encouraged h____ w____, d____, and careful p____ in everyday life, which are r____ behaviours, rather than relying solely on f___ or r____ rituals.

• This process undermined the r_____ w_____ of the Middle Ages and replaced it with the rational s____ o_____ found in modern society.

Max Weber: rationalisation

• In relation to secularisation, rationalisation refers to the process by which rational ways of thinking and acting come to replace religious ones.

• Instead of relying on religious explanations or traditions, people start using reason, logic, and scientific thinking to understand the world and make decisions.

• Many sociologists such as Max Weber (1905) have argued that Western society has undergone a process of rationalisation in the last few centuries.

• He argued that the Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther in the 16" century started a process of rationalisation of life in the West.

• Protestantism encouraged hard work, discipline, and careful planning in everyday life, which are rational behaviours, rather than relying solely on faith or religious rituals.

• This process undermined the religious worldview of the Middle Ages and replaced it with the rational scientific outlook found in modern society.

Max Weber: rationalisation

• For W____, how did the medieval Catholic worldview that dominated Europe see the world?

Max Weber: rationalisation

• For Weber, the medieval Catholic worldview that dominated Europe saw the world as an 'enchanted/magical garden'.

• God and other spiritual beings and forces, such as angels, the devil and so on, were believed to be present and active in this world, changing the course of events through their supernatural powers and miraculous interventions in it.

• Humans could try to influence these beings and forces by magical means such as prayers and spells, fasts and pilgrimages, the wearing of charms etc, in order to ensure a good harvest, protect against disease and so on.

Max Weber: rationalisation →Disenchantment

• However, the Protestant Reformation brought a new w___ . Instead of the i_____ God of medieval Catholicism, Protestantism saw God as t_____ - as existing above and beyond, or outside, this world.

• Although God had created the world, he did not i_____ in it, but instead left it to run according to its own l___ of n___

• God made the world and set it in m__, but after, it ran according to its own p____ and its creator played no f___ p___.

• This meant that events were no longer to be explained how? but as the p____ w____ of n___ f____. All that was needed to understand them was rationality - the power of reason.

• Using r___ and s____, humans could discover the l___ of n___, understand and predict how the world works and control it through t___.

• In other words, there was no longer a need for r_____ e____ of the world, since the world was no longer an e___ g___.

• In Weber's view, therefore, the Protestant Reformation begins the 'disenchantment' of the world - what does this mean?

• This enables science to t___ and provide the basis for t____ a____ that give humans more and more p___ to control n___. In turn, this further undermines the r____ worldview.

Max Weber: rationalisation →Disenchantment

• However, the Protestant Reformation brought a new worldview. Instead of the interventionist God of medieval Catholicism, Protestantism saw God as transcendent - as existing above and beyond, or outside, this world.

• Although God had created the world, he did not intervene in it, but instead left it to run according to its own laws of nature

• God made the world and set it in motion, but after, it ran according to its own principles and its creator played no further part.

• This meant that events were no longer to be explained as the work of unpredictable supernatural beings, but as the predictable workings of natural forces. All that was needed to understand them was rationality - the power of reason.

• Using reason and science, humans could discover the laws of nature, understand and predict how the world works and control it through technology.

• In other words, there was no longer a need for religious explanations of the world, since the world was no longer an enchanted garden.

• In Weber's view, therefore, the Protestant Reformation begins the 'disenchantment' of the world - it squeezes out magical and religious ways of thinking and starts off the rationalisation process that leads to the dominance of the rational mode of thought.

• This enables science to thrive and provide the basis for technological advances that give humans more and more power to control nature. In turn, this further undermines the religious worldview.

Max Weber: rationalisation →A technological worldview

• Following Weber, B____ (2011) argues that the growth of a t____ w____ has largely replaced r____ or s____ explanations of why things happen.

• what’s the example of a plane crash?

• A technological worldview thus leaves little room for r____ e____ in everyday life, which only survive in areas where t____ is least effective - for example, we may pray for help if we are s_____ from an i____ for which s____ m___ has no cure.

• Bruce concludes that although scientific explanations do not c____ r____ d____, they have greatly reduced the scope for r___ e____.

• Scientific knowledge does not in itself make people into a____, but the worldview it encourages results in people taking religion l___ s_____.

Max Weber: rationalisation →A technological worldview

• Following Weber, Bruce (2011) argues that the growth of a technological worldview has largely replaced religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen.

• For example, when a plane crashes with the loss of many lives, we are unlikely to regard it as the work of evil spirits or God's punishment of the wicked. Instead, we look for scientific and technological explanations.

• A technological worldview thus leaves little room for religious explanations in everyday life, which only survive in areas where technology is least effective - for example, we may pray for help if we are suffering from an illness for which scientific medicine has no cure.

• Bruce concludes that although scientific explanations do not challenge religion directly, they have greatly reduced the scope for religious explanations.

• Scientific knowledge does not in itself make people into atheists, but the worldview it encourages results in people taking religion less seriously.

Structural differentiation

• T_____ P____ (1951) defines structural differentiation as what?

• This means that as society becomes more c_____, d_____ i_____ start to focus on s____ j____ or roles instead of o____ i_____ doing everything.

• For example, in p____-i____ society, the church not only provided r____ g____ but also ran s____, looked after the p____, and influenced the l____. In modern society, these functions are now handled by s____ i____ like the g___,

• Separate, s_____ i____ develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution.

• Parsons sees this as having happened to r____ - it dominated p____-i____ society, but with industrialisation it has become a smaller and more s____ i___.

Structural differentiation

• Talcott Parsons (1951) defines structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society.

• This means that as society becomes more complex, different institutions start to focus on specific jobs or roles instead of one institution doing everything.

• For example, in pre-industrial society, the church not only provided religious guidance but also ran schools, looked after the poor, and influenced the law. In modern society, these functions are now handled by separate institutions like the government,

• Separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution.

• Parsons sees this as having happened to religion - it dominated pre-industrial society, but with industrialisation it has become a smaller and more specialised institution.

Structural differentiation

what are the 2 points under structural differentiation of religion

• disengagement

• privatisation

Structural differentiation→Disengagement

• According to Parsons, structural differentiation leads to the d____ of r____. Its f____ are t____ to other i_____ such as the state and it becomes d____ from wider society.

• For example, the church loses the i_____ it once had on e____, s____ w____ and the l___

Structural differentiation→Disengagement

• According to Parsons, structural differentiation leads to the disengagement of religion. Its functions are transferred to other institutions such as the state and it becomes disconnected from wider society.

• For example, the church loses the influence it once had on education, social welfare and the law.

Structural differentiation→Privatisation

• Bruce agrees that religion has become s_____ from w____ s____ and lost many of its former functions.

• It has become privatised - what dies this mean?

• Religious beliefs are now largely a matter of p____ c____ and religious institutions have lost much of their i____ on wider society.

• As a result, what have lost meaning?

• Even where religion continues to perform functions such as e_____ or s___ welfare, it must conform to the requirements of the s____ s___

• For example, teachers in f____ s____ must hold qualifications that are recognised by the s____.

• At the same time, church and state tend to become s____ in modern society.

• Modern states increasingly accept that religion is a p____ c____ and therefore that the s____ should not be identified with one p____ f___

Structural differentiation→Privatisation

• Bruce agrees that religion has become separated from wider society and lost many of its former functions.

• It has become privatised - confined to the private sphere of the home and family.

• Religious beliefs are now largely a matter of personal choice and religious institutions have lost much of their influence on wider society.

• As a result, traditional rituals and symbols have lost meaning

• Even where religion continues to perform functions such as education or social welfare, it must conform to the requirements of the secular state.

• For example, teachers in faith schools must hold qualifications that are recognised by the state.

• At the same time, church and state tend to become separated in modern society.

• Modern states increasingly accept that religion is a personal choice and therefore that the state should not be identified with one particular faith.

Social and cultural diversity

• As societies become more d____, with different b____ and l____, religion loses its d_____ and individuals are more likely to choose their own b____ rather than follow a s____, s_____ f___

• What are the 3 reasons why social and cultural diversity can lead to secularisation?

Social and cultural diversity

• As societies become more diverse, with different beliefs and lifestyles, religion loses its dominance and individuals are more likely to choose their own beliefs rather than follow a single, shared faith.

There are 3 reasons why social and cultural diversity can lead to secularisation :

1. decline of community

2. industrialisation

3. diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermines religion

Social and cultural diversity → Decline of community

• The move from p____-i____ to i______ s___ brings about the decline of c_____ and this contributes to the decline of r___.

• W_____ argues that in pre-industrial communities, s____ v____ were e____ through c_____ r____ rituals that integrated individuals and regulated their behaviour.

• However, when religion lost its b____ in stable local communities, it lost its v____ and its h____ over individuals.

Social and cultural diversity → Decline of community

• The move from pre-industrial to industrial society brings about the decline of community and this contributes to the decline of religion.

• Wilson argues that in pre-industrial communities, shared values were expressed through collective religious rituals that integrated individuals and regulated their behaviour.

• However, when religion lost its basis in stable local communities, it lost its vitality and its hold over individuals.

Social and cultural diversity → Industrialisation

• Similarly, Bruce sees industrialisation as undermining the c____ of religious beliefs that hold s____ r____ c____ together.

• Small close-knit rural communities give way to what?

• s____ and g____ mobility not only b____ up communities but brings people together from many d____ b___, creating even more d___.

Social and cultural diversity → Industrialisation

• Similarly, Bruce sees industrialisation as undermining the consensus of religious beliefs that hold small rural communities together.

• Small close-knit rural communities give way to large loose-knit urban communities with diverse beliefs and values.

• Social and geographical mobility not only breaks up communities but brings people together from many different backgrounds, creating even more diversity.

Social and cultural diversity → Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermines religion.

• Even where people continue to hold r____ b___, they cannot avoid what?

• Bruce argues that the plausibility (believability) of beliefs is undermined by .a____.

• Religion is also weakened by i____. Religion depends on what?- R____, p____, f____, and s____ are usually d___ t____, which helps people feel c___ and keeps the f____ a___.

• Without a community, an individual’s belief can become i____—there’s no group to s____, e____, or m____ the practices, and the sense that the religion is “r____” or meaningful can w____.

• This links to secularisation how?

Social and cultural diversity → Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermines religion.

• Even where people continue to hold religious beliefs, they cannot avoid knowing that many of those around them hold very different views.

• Bruce argues that the plausibility (believability) of beliefs is undermined by alternatives.

• Religion is also weakened by individualism. Religion depends on a community of people practising it together - Rituals, prayers, festivals, and services are usually done together, which helps people feel connected and keeps the faith alive.

• Without a community, an individual’s belief can become isolated—there’s no group to support, encourage, or model the practices, and the sense that the religion is “real” or meaningful can weaken.

• This links to secularisation because as communities of shared religious practice decline, religion becomes less socially powerful and therefore less influential in society.

✘Criticisms

✘- The view that the d_____ of c____ causes the decline of religion has been criticised.- A____ points out that religious communities do not have to be based in o____ p___ to be strong.

• Religion can still create a sense of b____ on a g____ l____, not just in a l___ t____ or neighbourhood

• For example, J____, H___ and M___ people can feel part of a w____ r____ c____ even if they live f____ a____.

• Some religious groups are also “imagined communities” - what does this mean?

• In addition, P____ churches often grow in b___, b___ c____ that are meant to be i____, which shows that religion can still thrive without t____ c____-k___ c___.

✘Criticisms

✘- The view that the decline of community causes the decline of religion has been criticised.- Aldridge points out that religious communities do not have to be based in one place to be strong.

• Religion can still create a sense of belonging on a global level, not just in a local town or neighbourhood

• For example, Jewish, Hindu and Muslim people can feel part of a worldwide religious community even if they live far apart.

• Some religious groups are also “imagined communities” because people connect through social media, TV, and the internet rather than face-to-face.

• In addition, Pentecostal churches often grow in big, busy cities that are meant to be impersonal, which shows that religion can still thrive without traditional close-knit communities.

Religious diversity

• According to B____ (1969), another cause of secularisation is the trend towards religious diversity - what does religious diversity mean?

There are 2 points arguing that religious diversity is the cause of secularisation - what are they?

Religious diversity

• According to Berger (1969), another cause of secularisation is the trend towards religious diversity where instead of there being only one religious organisation and only one interpretation of the faith, there are many.

There are 2 points arguing that religious diversity is the cause of secularisation

• the sacred canopy

• plausibility structure

Religious diversity → The sacred canopy

• In the M____ A____, the E____ C____ C____ had n___ c___.

• As a result, everyone lived under a s____ s____ c____ or set of b____ shared by all. This gave these beliefs greater plausibility - why?

• This all changed with the P____ R_____, when Protestant churches and sects b____ a____ from the Catholic Church in the ___th century.

• Since the R____, the number and variety of r____ o____ has continued to g____, each with a d____ v__ of the t____.

• With the a____ of this religious diversity, no church can now claim an u____ m____ of the truth

• Society is thus no longer u___ under the s____ s____ c___ provided by one ___. Instead, religious diversity creates a p____ of life worlds, where people's p____ of the world v___ and where there are d____ i____ of the t___.

• how does this reflect postmodernism?

Religious diversity → The sacred canopy

• In the Middle Ages, the European Catholic Church had no competition.

• As a result, everyone lived under a single sacred canopy or set of beliefs shared by all. This gave these beliefs greater plausibility because they had no challengers and the Church's version of the truth was unquestioned

• This all changed with the Protestant Reformation, when Protestant churches and sects broke away from the Catholic Church in the 16" century.

• Since the Reformation, the number and variety of religious organisations has continued to grow, each with a different version of the truth.

• With the arrival of this religious diversity, no church can now claim an unchallenged monopoly of the truth

• Society is thus no longer unified under the single sacred canopy provided by one church. Instead, religious diversity creates a plurality of life worlds, where people's perceptions of the world vary and where there are different interpretations of the truth.

• This reflects postmodernism as it suggests there is no single, universal truth anymore, only multiple perspectives and interpretations of reality shaped by different religions and beliefs.

Religious diversity → Plausibility structure

• Berger argues that this creates a c____ of c____ for religion.

• D____ undermines religion's 'plausibility structure' - what is this?

• When there are a____ v____ of religion to choose between, people are likely to q____ all of them and this e_____ the absolute c____ of traditional religion

• Religious beliefs become r____ (r____ to people’s p____ views) rather than a___ - what is true or false becomes simply a p____ p____ of v__, and this creates the possibility of o____ out of r___ altogether.

• Bruce sees the trend towards r____ d___ as the most i____ cause of secularisation. As he puts it: 'It is d____ to live in a w____ that treats as e____ v____ a large number of i____ b____, without coming to suppose that there is no one truth.'

Religious diversity → Plausibility structure

• Berger argues that this creates a crisis of credibility for religion.

• Diversity undermines religion's 'plausibility structure' - the reasons why people find it believable.

• When there are alternative versions of religion to choose between, people are likely to question all of them and this erodes the absolute certainties of traditional religion

• . Religious beliefs become relative (related to people’s personal views) rather than absolute - what is true or false becomes simply a personal point of view, and this creates the possibility of opting out of religion altogether.

• Bruce sees the trend towards religious diversity as the most important cause of secularisation. As he puts it: 'It is difficult to live in a world that treats as equally valid a large number of incompatible beliefs, without coming to suppose that there is no one truth.'

Religious diversity → Religious diverts and Plausibility structure ✘Criticisms

✘- B____ (1999) has c____ his v____ and now argues that diversity and choice actually s____ i____ and p____ in religion.

• For example, the growth of e_____ in L_____ A____ and the N____ C____ R____ in the USA point to the continuing v____ of religion, not its decline

✘- B______ (2003) agrees with the idea that religious diversity will lead some to question or even abandon their religious beliefs, but this is not i____.

• Opposing views can have the effect of s____ a religious group's c____ to its existing beliefs rather than u___ them.

Religious diversity → Religious diverts and Plausibility structure ✘Criticisms

✘- Berger (1999) has changed his views and now argues that diversity and choice actually stimulate interest and participation in religion.

• For example, the growth of evangelicalism in Latin America and the New Christian Right in the USA point to the continuing vitality of religion, not its decline

✘- Beckford (2003) agrees with the idea that religious diversity will lead some to question or even abandon their religious beliefs, but this is not inevitable.

• Opposing views can have the effect of strengthening a religious group's commitment to its existing beliefs rather than undermining them.

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition

Bruce identifies two counter-trends that seem to go against secularisation theory. Both are associated with higher than a____ l____ of r___ p: - what are the 2?

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition

Bruce identifies two counter-trends that seem to go against secularisation theory. Both are associated with higher than average levels of religious participation:

• Cultural defence

• Cultural transition

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition → Cultural defence

• what is cultural defence?

• For example, in P_____, C_____ became very p_____ before the f___ of c_____ because it helped people feel u____ against the C____ government.

• Similarly, in Iran, Islam became more i____ before the 19___ revolution because it was used as a way to o____ W____ influence and defend I____ identity.

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition → Cultural defence

• Cultural defence is where religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against an external force such as a hostile foreign power.

• For example, in Poland, Catholicism became very popular before the fall of communism because it helped people feel united against the Communist government.

• Similarly, in Iran, Islam became more influential before the 1979 revolution because it was used as a way to oppose Western influence and defend Iranian identity.

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition → Cultural transition

• what is cultural transition ?

• H_____ describes this in his study of r____ and i_____ to the USA.

• Religion has performed similar functions for I____, A____ C___, M____, H____ and other m____ to the UK.

Evaluation - Cultural defence and transition → Cultural transition

• Cultural transition is where religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants to a different country and culture.

• Herberg describes this in his study of religion and immigration to the USA.

• Religion has performed similar functions for Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim, Hindu and other migrants to the UK.

• However, Bruce argues that religion survives in such situations only because it is a f____ for g____ i___.

• Thus these examples do not disprove secularisation, but show that religion is most likely to survive where it performs f_____ other than relating individuals to the s____.

• Evidence supports Bruce's conclusion. For example, churchgoing declined in P____ after the fall of communism and there is evidence that religion loses importance for migrants once they are integrated into their new society.

• However, Bruce argues that religion survives in such situations only because it is a focus for group identity.

• Thus these examples do not disprove secularisation, but show that religion is most likely to survive where it performs functions other than relating individuals to the supernatural.

• Evidence supports Bruce's conclusion. For example, churchgoing declined in Poland after the fall of communism and there is evidence that religion loses importance for migrants once they are integrated into their new society.