Early Modern Gunpowder Empires, Maritime Exploration, and Intellectual Revolutions

Flashcards covering the political structures, social institutions, religious dynamics, and economic systems of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, as well as European exploration and the Scientific Revolution.

In the Ottoman Empire, what administrative and political responsibilities belonged to the grand vizier?

The grand vizier was the head of the imperial bureaucracy who oversaw day-to-day administration and often held more real political power than the sultan.

Who were the Janissaries, and how were they recruited into the Ottoman system?

They were elite infantry troops legally classified as slaves, recruited through the forced conscription of young boys from conquered Christian regions in the Balkans, educated, and converted to Islam.

In the Ottoman social hierarchy, what group was designated as the Reaya?

The Reaya was the taxpayer class, consisting of peasants and farmers.

Which renowned Christian cathedral in Constantinople was converted by the Ottomans into a grand mosque?

The cathedral of Saint Sophia.

How did coffee houses enter the social life of the Ottoman capital in the seventeenth century, and what activities took place there?

They were introduced from America by English merchants and served as gathering places where men met to drink, smoke tobacco, gossip, conduct business, and play chess.

What monetary development caused a dramatic inflationary period and economic decline in the Ottoman Empire?

A sudden influx of silver into the empire.

What primary factors initiated the decline of the Ottoman state in the late seventeenth century?

The end of territorial conquests and loss of land, which reduced the state revenue needed to maintain its oversized bureaucracy and military, compounded by administrative corruption.

What major military conquest occurred in 1453 that reshaped Ottoman standing in Europe?

The Ottoman capture of Constantinople.

Why were the Ottomans victorious over the Safavids at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514?

The Ottomans possessed an artillery advantage, whereas the Safavids were unable to deploy their artillery to the battlefield quickly enough.

What were the ethnic origins and core geographic territory of the Safavid Empire?

The Safavids originated from Turkish nomadic groups and established their empire in Persia (present-day Iran).

How did Safavid treatment of religious minorities differ between Christians/Jews and Zoroastrians?

The Safavids practiced religious tolerance toward Christians and Jews, but Zoroastrians were not very tolerated.

What core succession dispute defined the split between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims?

Sunnis recognized the legitimacy of the first three successors to Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman), while Shi'a held that only the fourth successor, Ali (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law), had the right to succeed the prophet.

How did gunpowder weaponry encourage state centralization during the transition from the post-classical to early modern era?

Cannons and gunpowder weapons were extremely costly, meaning only wealthy, centralized empires could finance them, incentivizing centralization to monopolize military power.

What were the primary objectives of Zheng He's seven Ming naval expeditions between 1405 and 1433?

To project imperial prestige, collect tribute through the kowtow ritual, and acquire exotic gifts such as giraffes.

Why did Ming China end maritime expeditions following the deaths of Zheng He and the Yongle Emperor?

Scholar-bureaucrats redirected government funds away from naval expansion toward internal defense priorities, such as the Great Wall.

What type of commercial empire did Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese establish in the Indian Ocean after 1498?

A Trading Post Empire that used naval cannons and trade passes (cartaz) rather than large territorial land conquest.

What was the central principle of the economic theory of mercantilism?

The belief that global wealth and resources were limited, prompting nations to maximize exports, minimize imports, and extract raw materials from captive colonies.

How did intellectuals during the Scientific Revolution define God according to Deism?

God was viewed as a creator who set natural, law-governed processes in motion, but who did not intervene in individual lives or perform miracles.

What economic ideas did Adam Smith advocate in 1776 in opposition to mercantilism?

He advocated for capitalism, individual economic self-interest, and free trade, arguing that centralized governments should not hoard wealth or intervene in the economy.

Who founded the Mughal dynasty in 1526, and through which battle did he secure northern India?

Babur, who conquered northern India following his victory at the Battle of Panipat.

What setback did Babur's successor, Humayan, experience in 1540?

He was driven from India by armies from Afghanistan and Rajput states, spending 1540 to 1545 in exile at the Safavid court before recapturing northern India.

Which specific social reforms concerning Hindu women were introduced by the Mughal emperor Akbar?

Akbar encouraged widow remarriage and legally prohibited sati, the ritual burning of Hindu widows on their husbands' funeral pyres.

What was the institution of purdah in the Mughal Empire, and what were its primary justifications?

The isolation and seclusion of upper-class Muslim women, practiced to protect family status, preserve women's purity, prevent outside relations, and protect inheritance systems from disputes.

What was Din-i-Ilahi, and what was Akbar's purpose in creating it?

Din-i-Ilahi ('Divine Faith') was Akbar's attempt to blend elements of several faiths into a universal religion to end sectarian disputes and unify his empire.

What religious and financial policy did Aurangzeb reinstate that caused widespread discontent among the Hindu population?

He reinstated the head tax on non-Muslim unbelievers as part of his campaign to purify Islam in India and rid the empire of Hinduism.

Which South Asian empire's territorial boundaries at the death of Akbar (1605) and circa 1690 are illustrated on this map?

The Mughal Empire.

Which Indian manufactured good became immensely popular among European aristocracy and drove European trade into the Mughal Empire?

Indian textiles.