General Psychology Exam 3 Study Guide

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Cognition, Intelligence, Motivation, Emotion, and Social Psychology from the General Psychology Exam 3 Study Guide.

Concept

A mental category grouping objects, events, or ideas that share features.

Prototype

The most typical mental example of a category.

Algorithm

A systematic procedure that yields a correct solution when appropriate to the problem and correctly applied.

Heuristic

An efficient mental shortcut that does not guarantee accuracy.

Insight

A sudden realization of a solution—the “Aha!” experience.

Functional fixedness

Difficulty imagining an object being used beyond its usual purpose.

Availability heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging category membership by resemblance to a stereotype, sometimes neglecting base rates.

Confirmation bias

Favoring evidence that supports an existing belief and dismissing contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

Confidence that exceeds the accuracy of one’s knowledge or judgment.

Planning fallacy

Underestimating completion time, often neglecting past experience and likely obstacles.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing possibilities to one best or correct answer.

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple possible ideas or solutions.

Spearman: general intelligence ($g$)

A general ability that contributes across cognitive tasks, alongside task-specific abilities.

Sternberg: triarchic theory

A theory proposing that analytical, creative, and practical abilities contribute to effective functioning.

Analytical intelligence

Evaluating and solving structured problems.

Creative intelligence

Generating original ideas and responding effectively to novelty.

Practical intelligence

Applying knowledge effectively in everyday situations.

Gardner: multiple intelligences

The theory that several distinguishable domains describe ability rather than only one general capacity.

Emotional intelligence

Perceiving, understanding, using, and managing emotions.

Achievement test

A test that measures knowledge or skills already learned.

Aptitude test

A test intended to predict future performance or readiness to learn.

Three-Ring Model of giftedness

A model proposing that gifted behavior emerges from above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment.

Intellectual disability

Significant limitations in intellectual and adaptive functioning beginning in the developmental period.

Specific learning disorders

Persistent difficulties in particular academic skills; not equivalent to low overall intelligence.

Dyslexia

Difficulties involving accurate or fluent word reading and decoding.

Dysgraphia

A commonly used term for writing difficulties, which may involve handwriting or written expression.

Dyscalculia

Difficulties involving number understanding, calculation, or mathematical learning.

Intrinsic motivation

Doing an activity for its inherent enjoyment or satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

Doing an activity for a separate reward or to avoid a consequence.

Overjustification effect

The reduction of existing intrinsic interest when an activity becomes understood mainly as a means to earn an external reward.

Autonomy

Feeling that actions are chosen and personally endorsed.

Competence

Feeling capable and effective.

Relatedness

Feeling connected to and valued by others.

Implementation intentions

Specific if–then plans linking a cue with an action.

Drive-reduction theory

The theory that physiological needs produce drives that motivate behavior restoring homeostasis, or internal balance.

Incentive theory

The theory that desirable external outcomes pull behavior.

Arousal theory

The theory that people seek or reduce stimulation to maintain a suitable arousal level.

Yerkes–Dodson principle

The principle that performance depends on arousal and task difficulty; excessive arousal particularly disrupts difficult or unfamiliar tasks.

Maslow’s hierarchy

A framework organizing physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

Ostracism

Being ignored or excluded by others.

James–Lange theory

An emotion theory proposing the sequence: $\text{Event} \rightarrow \text{bodily response} \rightarrow \text{experienced emotion}$.

Cannon–Bard theory

An emotion theory proposing the sequence: $\text{Event} \rightarrow \text{emotion and bodily arousal together}$.

Schachter–Singer two-factor theory

An emotion theory proposing that: $\text{Arousal} + \text{interpretation of context} \rightarrow \text{emotion}$.

Zajonc/LeDoux approaches

Approaches proposing that some affective responses occur without deliberate conscious interpretation.

Lazarus appraisal theory

A theory proposing that evaluation of meaning for well-being shapes emotion, though appraisal need not be conscious.

Display rules

Social or cultural expectations governing emotional expression.

Ideal affect

Emotional states a person would prefer to experience.

Social referencing

Using another person’s emotional cues to guide a response in uncertainty.

Empathy

Understanding another person’s perspective and/or sharing aspects of their emotional experience.

Sympathy

Concern or compassion without necessarily sharing the same emotional state.

Secondary/self-conscious emotions

Emotions involving self-evaluation against standards, such as guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment.

Guilt

A negative evaluation focused on a particular behavior; often supports repair.

Shame

A negative evaluation focused on the self; can support withdrawal or defensiveness.

Situation selection

Choosing whether to enter a situation as a form of emotion regulation.

Situation modification

Changing a situation to alter its emotional impact.

Attentional deployment

Changing the focus of attention during emotion regulation.

Cognitive change/reappraisal

Changing the meaning assigned to an event to alter emotional response.

Response modulation

Adjusting an emotional response after it develops.

Affect labeling

Putting an emotional experience into words.

Delay of gratification

Passing up an immediate reward for a more valuable later reward.

Internalizing problems

Distress directed primarily inward, such as anxiety, withdrawal, or depressive symptoms.

Externalizing problems

Outwardly directed behavioral difficulties, such as aggression or disruptive rule-breaking.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

A persistent pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, or vindictiveness.

Conduct disorder (CD)

A persistent pattern of serious violations of others’ rights or major age-appropriate rules.

Socioemotional selectivity theory

The theory that perceived time remaining influences goals; limited time horizons favor emotionally meaningful experiences and relationships.

Fundamental attribution error

Overestimating traits and underestimating situations when explaining others’ behavior.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort arising from inconsistency among important attitudes, beliefs, or behavior.

Central-route persuasion

Persuasion through careful consideration of arguments and evidence.

Peripheral-route persuasion

Persuasion through cues outside the substantive argument.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance strategy where agreement to a small request increases later agreement to a larger request.

Door-in-the-face technique

A compliance strategy where a rejected large request is followed by a smaller request that appears reasonable or like a concession.

Conformity

Changing judgment or behavior to align with a group.

Normative influence

Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.

Informational influence

Conforming because others are believed to have accurate information.

Chameleon effect

Unintentional imitation of posture, gestures, or behavior.

Obedience

Following a direct instruction from an authority.

Social facilitation

The strengthening of dominant responses by others’ presence, often yielding better performance on easy tasks and worse on difficult tasks.

Social loafing

Reduced individual effort when contributions are pooled and difficult to identify.

Deindividuation

Reduced individual self-awareness or accountability in some group settings.

Group polarization

The tendency for group discussion to shift a group toward a more extreme version of its initial tendency.

Groupthink

A phenomenon where pressure for cohesion and agreement interferes with critical evaluation.

Bystander effect

The phenomenon where, under some conditions, an individual is less likely to intervene when other observers are present.

Diffusion of responsibility

The feeling that responsibility is distributed across multiple observers.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group.

Prejudice

Prejudgment based on group membership (attitude/feeling).

Discrimination

Unequal treatment based on group membership (action).

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A response-time task assessing relative association strength between categories and attributes.

Contact hypothesis

The hypothesis that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice, especially with equal status, shared goals, cooperation, and institutional support.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm someone who does not want to be harmed.

Online disinhibition

Reduced restraint online, influenced by anonymity, distance, and reduced immediate feedback.

Mere exposure effect

The phenomenon where repeated exposure can increase liking, particularly from a neutral or mildly positive starting point.

Passionate love

Intense attraction, arousal, and preoccupation.

Companionate love

Enduring affection, trust, attachment, and commitment.