APUSH I Final Exam Chapter13

highlighted terms

“Manifest Destiny”

• Belief in the 1840s that the United States was destined by God and history to expand across North America and possibly beyond

• Justified U.S. territorial expansion after the large land gains of the 1840s (most since the Louisiana Purchase)

• Reflected strong American nationalism

• Claimed expansion would extend American liberty and republican government to new territories

• Included a racial justification:

• Advocates believed the “American race” were superior & claimed nonwhite people could not participate in a republican system

• Spread widely through the penny press (cheap newspapers)

• Supporters disagreed over how far expansion should go

• Opposed by leaders like Henry Clay, who feared expansion would reopen the slavery controversy & threaten the stability of the Union

Henry Clay

• Leading Whig politician and prominent figure in the Election of 1844

• Nominated as the Whig presidential candidate, opposed rapid territorial expansion

• Avoided taking a firm position on Texas annexation, fearing it would reignite sectional tensions over slavery

• Believed expansion could threaten the stability of the Union by increasing conflicts between North and South

• Opposed Manifest Destiny arguments for continental expansion, prioritizing national unity over territorial growth

• Supported traditional Whig policies:

  • Internal improvements (infrastructure like roads and canals)

  • Economic development through tariffs and a national bank

• His cautious approach to Texas and slavery issues weakened his appeal, especially in the South, helping James K. Polk win the presidency

Texas

• Originally claimed by the U.S. as part of the Louisiana Purchase, but claim was dropped

• Became part of the Republic of Mexico after Mexico gained independence

• U.S. offered to buy Texas twice; Mexico refused

• Mexico encouraged American immigration to Texas to:

  • Strengthen the economy

  • Increase tax revenue

  • Create a buffer against Native Americans and U.S. expansion.

• Mexican colonization law offered:

  • Cheap land

  • 4-year tax exemption

• Many American settlers (mostly Southerners with enslaved people) moved in and outnumbered Mexican settlers 2 to 1

• Slavery was illegal in Mexico, but Americans wanted it legalized in Texas

• Conflict grew after Santa Anna centralized power in Mexico

• Americans revolted

• Texas won independence after Sam Houston defeated Santa Anna

• Santa Anna signed treaty granting independence (later rejected by Mexico)

• Texas sought U.S. annexation

• Annexation was controversial because:

• Northerners opposed expansion of slave territory

• Fear of war with Mexico

• Eventually annexed under John Tyler

Stephen F. Austin

• The most successful American empresario (land agent/intermediary) in Texas

• Received large land grants from the Mexican government

• Promised to bring American settlers in exchange for land

• Helped recruit mostly Southern settlers, many with enslaved people

• Established settlements that became centers of American political and economic power

• Initially supported a peaceful settlement with Mexico

• Was imprisoned by the Mexican government (under orders of Santa Anna) for allegedly encouraging revolt

• His imprisonment increased tensions between Americans and Mexico

• Became a key figure in the movement toward Texas independence

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

• A Mexican general and political leader who rose to power during a period of instability in Mexico

• Became a dictator and imposed an autocratic (centralized) government

• Increased the power of the national government at the expense of state governments

• Texas settlers believed his policies were targeted at limiting their autonomy

• Imprisoned Stephen F. Austin, accusing him of encouraging rebellion

• Led Mexican forces against Texas during the Texas Revolution

• Personally led the Mexican army into Texas

• Commanded forces at the Alamo & Goliad

• Defeated by Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto

• Captured by American forces and forced to sign a treaty granting Texas independence

• The Mexican government later repudiated (rejected) the treaty

• Could not ultimately regain control of Texas

Alamo

• A former mission in San Antonio, Texas

• Site of a famous battle during the Texas Revolution

• Mexican forces under Santa Anna attacked and defeated a small American garrison

• The American defense was brave but ultimately ineffective; all defenders were killed

• Became a powerful symbol of resistance and sacrifice because Davy Crockett fought & died in this battle

• Helped rally Texans to continue fighting Mexico

Goliad

• Location of another Texas garrison during the Texas Revolution

• Mexican forces captured the American troops

• After surrendering, most of the American soldiers were executed by Mexican forces

Sam Houston

• Leader of the Texas revolutionary army

• Managed to keep a small, organized force together while many Texans fled east

• Led Texas forces at the Battle of San Jacinto

• Defeated Santa Anna’s army in a surprise attack

• Captured Santa Anna

• Became the first President of the independent Republic of Texas

• Sent a delegation to Washington seeking annexation to the United States

• Strong supporter of joining the Union

Battle of San Jacinto

• Final and decisive battle of the Texas Revolution

• Took place near present-day Houston, Texas & was led by Sam Houston

• Texas forces defeated Santa Anna’s army

• American troops killed many Mexican soldiers in revenge for Goliad

• Santa Anna was captured & forced to sign a treaty granting Texas independence

• Secured Texas as an independent republic

Oregon

• Northwestern territory including present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and half of British Columbia

• Claimed by both the U.S. and Britain

• Dispute led to joint occupation (both nations’ citizens could settle and trade there)

• U.S. interest grew due to: evangelical missions, countering Catholic influence from Canada & economic and territorial expansion

• Many Americans settled, outnumbering British settlers

• Migrants traveled via Oregon Trail, facing hardships, disease, and difficult environmental conditions

• Settlement contributed to displacement of Native Americans, including the Cayuse

“Joint occupation”

• Agreement between Britain and the U.S. over Oregon Country

• Allowed citizens of both nations equal access to trade and settlement; lasted for 20 years

• Neither nation had a large presence, leaving settlement to fur traders, missionaries, and settlers

Facilitated eventual American demographic dominance in Oregon

California Gold Rush

• Began in 1848 after James Marshall discovered gold at John Sutter’s sawmill in the Sierra Nevada foothills

• Marshall initially tried to suppress the discovery, fearing a gold rush would disrupt Sutter’s empire

• Word spread rapidly; thousands of migrants, called “Forty-niners”, rushed to California

• Migrants included young men seeking fortune, families seeking economic opportunity & Chinese immigrants (mostly free laborers or merchants)

• Created a volatile, male-dominated society with high greed and competition

• Labor shortages led to exploitation of Native Americans, often as indentured or forced labor (“loitering” laws)

• Gold rush accelerated westward migration, economic development & urban/agricultural expansion in California

Intensified national debates over slavery in new territories

Democratic Party

• Major political party in the 1840s, generally pro-expansion

• Supported Manifest Destiny and the idea that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent

• Nominated James K. Polk in 1844 after former candidate Martin Van Buren declined due to opposition to Texas annexation

• Southern Democrats strongly favored annexing Texas to expand slave territory and increase Southern political power

• Democratic platform included the occupation of Oregon, annexation of Texas, & the support for westward expansion as a national duty

• Polk’s victory was seen as a mandate for expansionist policies

• Party division reflected sectional interests:

• Southern Democrats prioritized slavery expansion

Western Democrats supported settlement and development of new territories

James K. Polk

• Democratic presidential candidate in the Election of 1844; won the presidency

• Represented Tennessee in the House of Representatives before running

• Strong supporter of Manifest Destiny and territorial expansion

• Platform included annexation of Texas, occupation of Oregon & expansion into California and New Mexico

• Campaigned as the expansionist alternative to Whig candidate Henry Clay, who avoided the annexation issue

• Claimed that his victory gave him a mandate to pursue expansionist policies, which gave political legitimacy to Texas annexation

• Negotiated the Oregon border dispute with Britain, ultimately settling at the 49th parallel

• Supported expansion while trying to balance sectional tensions over slavery, though his actions often favored Southern interests, leading to Northern opposition

49th parallel

• The U.S.-British boundary in the Oregon Territory was eventually set at the 49th parallel

• Resolved disputes over Oregon Country peacefully

• Negotiated under President James K. Polk after British rejection of his earlier compromise

• Maintained U.S. control south of the line while Britain retained Vancouver Island and areas north

• Avoided potential war with Britain while fulfilling part of the Manifest Destiny agenda

“54-40 or fight!”

• Slogan used by expansionists during the Oregon boundary dispute

• Referred to the northern latitude line (54°40′) that some Americans claimed as the U.S. boundary with Britain

• Represented a willingness to go to war with Britain if the full Oregon Territory was not ceded

• Polk eventually compromised at the 49th parallel, avoiding war but satisfying most Americans’ desire for westward expansion

Rio Grande River

• Claimed by Texas and the U.S. as the southern and western border of Texas

• Disputed by Mexico, which argued the border was the Nueces River to the north

• Polk accepted the Texan claim and sent General Zachary Taylor to protect the border

Crossing of this river by U.S. troops led to Mexican attacks, which Polk used as a justification to declare war on Mexico

Nueces River

• River north of the Rio Grande, claimed by Mexico as the border with Texas

• Disputed with U.S. and Texas, who claimed the Rio Grande as the proper boundary

• Dispute contributed directly to the Mexican-American War (1846–1848)

Zachary Taylor

• General in the U.S. Army and hero of the Mexican-American War

• Led troops during the Texas-Mexico border disputes, including the movement across the Nueces River to the Rio Grande

• Captured Monterrey, but allowed Mexican forces to evacuate, causing President Polk to doubt his tactical skill for advancing to Mexico City

• Polk feared Taylor could become a political rival due to his popularity from the war

• Nominated by the Whig Party in the Election of 1848, despite having no political experience, because of his national fame as a military hero

• Won the election and became President of the United States, during which the issue of slavery in new territories became pressing

• Believed that statehood could solve the slavery issue, encouraging California to draft a constitution prohibiting slavery and asking Congress to admit it as a free state

• Advocated for New Mexico also to achieve statehood and decide on slavery for themselves

Monterrey

• City in northeastern Mexico captured by General Zachary Taylor during the Mexican-American War

• Taylor allowed Mexican troops to evacuate after the battle

• Polk thought Taylor lacked tactical skill to advance on Mexico City and feared he would become a political rival

Mexico City

• Capital of Mexico and ultimate objective of Polk’s war strategy

• General Winfield Scott led a successful campaign to capture it after coordinating a large army along the Mexican coast

Seizure of the city forced Mexico to negotiate peace, eventually leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Stephen W. Kearny

• U.S. general during the Mexican-American War

• Successfully captured Santa Fe, New Mexico, facing no opposition

• Moved on to California, coordinating with local settlers and military forces

• Helped bring different American forces in California together under his command

• Played a key role in securing U.S. control of the Southwest, supporting Polk’s expansionist goals

John C. Fremont

• Led an American exploring party during the Mexican-American War

• Participated in the Bear Flag Revolution, helping American settlers take control of California

• Worked alongside Stephen W. Kearny and the U.S. Navy, integrating multiple efforts to secure California

• Contributed to the American victory in California and eventual incorporation of the territory into the U.S.

• Republican presidential candidate in 1856

• Known as a national explorer of the Far West with no political experience

• Represented Republican opposition to the expansion of slavery into new territories

• His campaign demonstrated the Republican Party’s rising influence in the North

Denounced the Kansas-Nebraska Act and expansion of slavery, connecting moral opposition to slavery with economic aspirations of the North

Bear Flag Revolution

• Uprising by American settlers in California against Mexican authority

• Led by John C. Fremont and others during the Mexican-American War

• Resulted in temporary independence for settlers before the territory was formally brought under U.S. control

Winfield Scott

• Commanding general of the U.S. Army during the Mexican-American War

• Known as Polk’s best soldier and strategist

• Led a campaign down the Mexican coast to capture Mexico City

• Kept American casualties low and never lost a battle, showing superior military skill

• Capture of Mexico City under Scott’s leadership forced Mexico to negotiate peace, ending the war

• ran for President under the Whigs in 1852

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• Officially ended the Mexican-American War

• Mexico:

  • ceded California and New Mexico to the United States

  • Recognized the Rio Grande as the border of Texas

• US:

  • assumed money claims of its citizens against Mexico and paid $15 million to the Mexican government

• Negotiated by Nicholas Trist despite Polk’s unclear instructions

• Resulted in massive territorial gain for the U.S., fueling debates over slavery and sectional tensions in Congress

David Wilmot

• Representative from Pennsylvania and antislavery Democrat

• Introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which aimed to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico

• Proviso passed the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate

• Became central in sectional debates over slavery, as Southerners argued they had the right to bring enslaved people into new territories

• Highlighted conflict between Northern and Southern interests over territorial expansion and slavery

Wilmot Proviso

• Proposed by David Wilmot, a representative from Pennsylvania and antislavery Democrat

• Introduced as an amendment to an appropriation bill requesting $2 million to negotiate peace with Mexico (during the Mexican-American war)

• The amendment prohibited slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico during the Mexican-American War

• Passed the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate, reflecting the sectional divide between North and South

• Became a central issue in congressional debate over the expansion of slavery

• Southerners strongly opposed it, claiming they had the right to bring their “property” (enslaved people) into new territories

• Debate over the Proviso continued for years, influencing later conflicts over the status of slavery in western lands

• Highlighted the growing tension between Northern free-soil interests and Southern slaveholding power in the U.S. government

“Popular sovereignty”

• Idea that residents of a territory could decide the status of slavery themselves through their legislature

• Proposed as a solution for new territories from Mexico

• Supported by politicians who wanted to avoid direct federal involvement in slavery decisions

• Led to conflicts like Bleeding Kansas, as different groups tried to influence territorial decisions

Free-Soil Party

• Political party formed by antislavery factions of Whigs, Democrats, and the Liberty Party

• Endorsed the Wilmot Proviso to prohibit slavery in new territories

• Nominated Martin Van Buren in 1848

• Represented growing political frustration with existing parties over the slavery issue

• Showed the increasing sectional divide and influence of slavery on politics

“Forty-niners”

• Migrants who rushed to California during the Gold Rush after Marshall’s discovery

• Mostly men who abandoned farms, jobs, and families to seek wealth

• Created a volatile society with few women or families

• Their migration contributed to population growth, urban expansion, and labor shortages

• Increased racial and social tensions, especially affecting Native populations and nonwhite immigrants

Personal liberty laws

• Passed by Northern states to counter the Fugitive Slave Law/Act

• Stopped courts and law enforcement from returning fugitive enslaved people to Southern slaveholders

• Reflected Northern resistance to federal pro-slavery enforcement

• Contributed to sectional tension, as Southerners viewed these laws as undermining their property rights

Fugitive Slave Law/Act

• Part of the Compromise of 1850 to appease Southern interests

• Required Northern states to return fugitive enslaved people to their owners

• Northern mobs and states actively resisted enforcement, sometimes passing personal liberty laws

• Highlighted the conflict between federal authority and state/local resistance over slavery

• Increased sectional tensions and made the issue of slavery more prominent in national politics

Compromise of 1850

• Created to resolve sectional crises following the Mexican-American War and territorial expansion

• Proposed by Henry Clay, aiming to settle all disputes between North and South

• Key provisions:

  • California admitted as a free state.

  • Territorial governments established in lands gained from Mexico without restrictions on slavery, leaving the decision to settlers. (POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY)

  • Abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, but slavery itself remained legal

  • New, stricter Fugitive Slave Law to enforce Southern slaveholders’ - rights

Passed in two phases due to political strategy and sectional divisions

Franklin Pierce

• Democrat and President elected in 1852

• Tried to maintain harmony by avoiding divisive issues like slavery, though largely unsuccessful

• Supported the Young America movement, which aimed to expand American democracy and commerce abroad to divert attention from domestic slavery debates

• Attempted to purchase Cuba from Spain; Ostend Manifesto controversy angered anti-slavery Northerners, who feared new slave states

Oversaw sectional tensions in U.S. territories and expansion efforts

“Young America”

• Movement within the Democratic Party during Pierce’s presidency

• Advocated for expanding American democracy internationally as a distraction from slavery issues

• Supported economic expansion, Pacific trade, and acquiring new territories (e.g., Cuba)

• Linked domestic expansionism with sectional disputes, sometimes creating controversy

Goal was to extend U.S. influence while avoiding immediate internal conflict

Ostend Manifesto

• Private document from Ostend, Belgium, during Pierce’s presidency

• Advocated seizing Cuba from Spain by force if Spain refused to sell

• Intended to expand slave territory and benefit Southern interests

• Caused Northern outrage, as anti-slavery leaders saw it as a conspiracy to add a new slave state

• Damaged Pierce’s administration politically

Transcontinental railroad

• Proposed to connect eastern U.S. to western territories

• Northern politicians wanted it to run through the North , Southern politicians wanted a southern route through slave states

• Southern route required land from Mexico, leading to the Gadsden Purchase

• Became a source of sectional tension because its location affected economic and political power between North and South

James Gadsden/Gadsden Purchase

• James Gadsden sent by Jefferson Davis to negotiate land from Mexico

• U.S. paid $10 million for land in what is now southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico

Intended to provide a southern route for the transcontinental railroad

Kansas-Nebraska Act

• Introduced by Stephen A. Douglas to organize Nebraska territory, north of the Missouri Compromise line (also did it to build a transcontinental railroad in the North)

• Allowed popular sovereignty: settlers could decide on slavery

• Repealed the Missouri Compromise, allowing slavery in previously free areas

• Divided the area into Kansas (likely slave) and Nebraska (likely free)

• Sparked Bleeding Kansas, as Northern and Southern settlers moved to influence elections

• Led to political realignments, including the formation of the Republican Party

Republican Party

• Emerged in the mid-1850s from Anti-Nebraska Democrats, Northern Whigs, and Free-Soilers who opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise

• Formed as a sectional party representing the Northern states and their economic, territorial, and social interests

• Strongly opposed the expansion of slavery into new western territories, promoting the ideology of “free soil” and “free labor”, which emphasized opportunities for Northern white workers and the right to control one’s own labor

• Viewed the South as attempting to expand an aristocratic, slaveholding system across the nation, which Northerners called the "slave power conspiracy"

• Became a major political force, winning enough seats in Congress to help organize the House of Representatives

• Ideologically, the party combined opposition to slavery with economic development, supporting internal improvements, railroads, and free labor ideals

John Brown

• Radical abolitionist who moved to Kansas to fight for a Free-State government

• Led a group to murder five pro-slavery settlers in the Potawatomie Massacre

• Believed he was an instrument of God to destroy slavery

• Actions contributed to guerrilla warfare in Kansas and heightened sectional conflict

• also raided the U.S. arsenal in Harpers Ferry

Potawatomie Massacre

• Violent attack led by John Brown in Kansas

• Killed five pro-slavery settlers and left bodies on display to intimidate others

• Escalated the civil strife in Kansas, contributing to the period known as Bleeding Kansas

Symbolized the moral and violent conflict over slavery in western territories

“Bleeding Kansas”

• Period of violence in Kansas (mid-1850s) over slavery after the Kansas-Nebraska Act

• Resulted from pro-slavery and Free-State settlers competing for control of the territorial legislature

• Featured events like Lawrence attack and Potawatomie Massacre

• Highlighted the failure of popular sovereignty and the nation’s sectional divisions

Charles Sumner

• Senator from Massachusetts, opponent of slavery

• Delivered speech “The Crime Against Kansas” criticizing pro-slavery forces

• Personally attacked Senator Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina with harsh language and sexual references

• Speech inflamed sectional tensions and led to violent retaliation in the House of Representatives

“The Crime Against Kansas”

• Speech by Charles Sumner condemning slavery and pro-slavery politicians

• Focused on the violence in Kansas and Southern aggression

• Criticized Senator Andrew P. Butler, making personal attacks

• Sparked a violent response from Preston Brooks, who caned Sumner unconscious, showing the deep sectional anger in the country

Preston Brooks

• Nephew of Andrew P. Butler and member of the House of Representatives

• Reacted violently to Sumner’s speech by attacking him with a cane in the Senate chamber until Sumner was unconscious

• Viewed as a hero in the South for defending Butler’s honor

• Angered the North, highlighting increasing sectional tension before the Civil War

Nat Turner

• Leader of a slave rebellion in Virginia (past event referenced in Southern fears)

• His rebellion caused fear among Southern whites, reinforcing the defense of slavery as necessary for social order

• Motivated Southern efforts to strengthen slavery and justify new pro-slavery ideology

Harriet Beecher Stowe

• Author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a novel criticizing slavery

• Provided evidence of Northern attacks on Southern society

• Contributed to Southern fears of abolitionist influence and reinforced the pro-slavery defensive ideology

Part of Northern moral and cultural pressure against slavery

James Buchanan

• Democrat from Pennsylvania, elected President in 1856

• Avoided involvement in Bleeding Kansas, as he was out of the country during the crisis, trying to remain neutral

• Endorsed Dred Scott v. Sandford decision as President

• Tried to resolve the controversy over Kansas by supporting admission under the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, even though most settlers opposed it

• Described as shy, indecisive, and cautious, governing during a period of intense sectional tension

• His presidency saw the Economic Panic of 1857, which strengthened the Northern Republican Party

Dred Scott v. Sandford

• Most controversial Supreme Court decision in U.S. history, handed down two days after Buchanan’s inauguration

• Case involved Dred Scott, an enslaved man from Missouri who had been taken by his owner into free territories (Illinois and Wisconsin) where slavery was illegal

• Scott sued the owner’s widow for freedom, claiming that residence in free territory freed him from slavery

• The circuit court initially declared Scott free, but John Sandford (brother of the widow) appealed, claiming ownership

• Missouri State Supreme Court reversed the lower court decision, ruling Scott remained enslaved

• When appealed to the federal Supreme Court, several rulings emerged:

• Scott could not sue because he was not a U.S. citizen, and African Americans had no rights under the Constitution

• Enslaved people were legally considered property, protected under the 5th Amendment, meaning Congress could not deprive owners of their property without “due process of law”

• Declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, as Congress had no authority to ban slavery in territories

• Impact of the decision:

  • White Southerners were pleased, seeing it as a validation of slavery

  • Northerners were outraged, viewing it as a threat to free labor and territorial freedom

  • Republicans threatened court “packing” to reverse the decision when they gained control of the federal government

Roger Taney

• Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court who issued the Dred Scott decision

• Ruled that:

  • Dred Scott could not sue, as African Americans were not citizens

  • Enslaved people were property protected by the 5th Amendment, so Congress could not restrict slavery in territories

  • The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional

• Decision was celebrated in the South and outraged Northerners, contributing to the rise of Republican opposition

Lecompton Constitution

• Drafted by the pro-slavery territorial legislature in Kansas

• Legalized slavery in Kansas and refused to give voters a chance to reject it

• President Buchanan supported its admission, despite majority of settlers opposing slavery

Congress compromised, allowing Kansas voters to approve or reject it; Kansas rejected it, showing Northern resistance to expansion of slavery

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

• Series of debates during 1858 Illinois Senate election

• Abraham Lincoln argued that slavery threatened opportunities for free laborers; morally wrong but not advocating abolition where it already existed

• Stephen A. Douglas supported popular sovereignty and opposed Black citizenship, claiming territories should decide slavery themselves

• Debates drew large crowds and national attention, boosting Lincoln’s profile

U.S. arsenal in Harpers Ferry

• Target of John Brown’s 1859 raid in Virginia

• Brown planned to arm enslaved people and spark a slave rebellion

• Seized the arsenal with 18 followers, but the uprising failed

• Demonstrated Southern fears about Northern abolitionists and increased tensions before the Civil War

Election of 1860

• Most momentous presidential election in U.S. history

• Democratic Party split:

  • Southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckinridge, supporting slavery

  • Northern Democrats favored popular sovereignty, leading to party division; nominated Stephen A. Douglas

• Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell, endorsing the Union and remaining silent on slavery

• Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, platform included:

  • High tariffs, internal improvements, Homestead Bill, Pacific railroad

  • Opposed slavery expansion into territories

• Lincoln won the presidency with majority of electoral votes, though not the popular vote

• Election outcome triggered Southern secession discussions, paving the way for the Civil War

Constitutional Union Party

• Formed by conservative ex-Whigs in 1860

• Nominated John Bell of Tennessee for president

• Platform emphasized preserving the Union and avoided taking a stance on slavery

• Represented a moderate faction trying to prevent sectional crisis from escalating

Republican platform

• Platform for the 1860 election, promoting Northern economic and political interests

• Endorsed traditional Whig measures:

  • High tariffs to protect industry

  • Internal improvements such as roads and canals

  • Homestead Bill to provide free land for settlers

  • Pacific railroad to be built with federal assistance

• Opposed the expansion of slavery into territories, insisting neither Congress nor territorial legislatures could legalize slavery

• Aimed to broaden appeal in the North and unite anti-slavery and economic modernization supporters