Chapter 2: Argumentation, Rhetoric, and Logical Fallacies

Vocabulary flashcards defining key concepts, rhetorical structures, models of reasoning, methods of development, and logical fallacies covered in Chapter 2.

Argument

A process of reasoned inquiry and rational discourse seeking common ground.

Claim

An assertion that states the argument’s main idea or position.

Claims of fact

Assertions that state something is true or not true, pivoting on what exactly is factual.

Claims of value

Arguments stating that something is good, bad, right, wrong, valuable, not valuable, desirable, or undesirable.

Claims of policy

Arguments that propose a change.

Evidence

Support for a claim or argument.

Personal experience

A type of evidence that can serve as an effective way to appeal to pathos.

Personal observations

Things you have seen but not necessarily experienced yourself.

Testimony

An expression of how the writer, or someone the writer is citing, feels about a personal experience or personal observation.

Anecdotes

Stories about other people that you have observed, been told about, or researched.

Analogies

Comparisons between two unrelated things.

Historical information

Verifiable facts that a writer knows from research.

Expert opinion

Specialized, credible knowledge used as evidence.

Quantitative evidence

Evidence that includes statistics.

Lines of reasoning

Connections between the claims in the writer’s argument and the evidence presented to support them.

Thesis

An overarching claim that clearly states the writer's position.

Induction

Arranging an argument so that it leads from particulars to universals, using specific cases to draw a conclusion (from the Latin inducere, meaning 'to lead into').

Deduction

The opposite of induction; moving from a general statement to reach a specific conclusion.

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses a major premise and a minor premise to reach a logical conclusion.

Classical argument

A five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians.

Introduction (exordium)

The first part of a classical argument that introduces the reader to the subject of discussion.

Narration (narratio)

Also known as exposition; provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand, beginning developmental paragraphs or establishing why the subject is a problem needing addressing.

Confirmation (confirmatio)

The major part of the text in a classical argument that includes the development or proof needed to make the writer's case.

Refutation (refutatio)

The part of a classical argument that addresses the counterargument, serving as a bridge between the proof and the conclusion.

Conclusion (peroration)

The final part of a classical argument that brings the essay to a close.

Rogerian arguments

Arguments based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding persuasively and refuting it in an accommodating rather than alienating way.

Toulmin model

A tool for uncovering assumptions underlying arguments that helps with analysis, structuring, qualifying a thesis, and understanding abstract arguments.

Warrant

In the Toulmin model, expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and audience.

Assumption

An unstated or underlying belief that a writer takes for granted as true when building an argument.

Backing

Further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority.

Qualifier

Tempers the claim to make it less absolute using words like usually, probably, maybe, etc.

Reservation

Explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

Rebuttal

Gives voice to objections within the Toulmin model.

Method of development

Modes of expression writers use to achieve their purposes.

Narration (method of development)

A method of development that tells a story or recounts a series of real-life events, usually governed by chronology, concrete details, a point of view, and sometimes elements such as dialogue.

Cause and effect

A method of development that analyzes origins and outcomes to establish clear, logical foundations of an argument.

Comparison and contrast

A method of development that highlights similarities and differences between categories to differentiate seemingly similar concepts.

Definition

A method of development that clarifies precise meanings of abstract terms so speakers and audiences share understanding.

Description

A method of development that evokes the five senses to help the reader empathize with the writer’s position.

Logical fallacies

Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument that often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

Red herring

A logical fallacy characterized by skipping to a new or irrelevant topic to avoid discussing the main issue.

Ad hominem fallacy

A fallacy that involves attacking an opponent's character rather than addressing the actual argument.

Straw man fallacy

A fallacy of oversimplifying an opponent's viewpoint to make it easier to attack.

False dilemma (Either-or fallacy)

A fallacy that presents two extreme choices as the only possible options available.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

A fallacy asserting that correlation implies causation; claiming an event was caused by something merely because it occurred earlier.

Faulty analogy

A fallacy that compares two things using irrelevant or inconsequential similarities.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy of reaching a broad conclusion based on insufficient or limited evidence.