Pathophysiology Exam 1

Pathophysiology

the study of altered body function associated with disease. It

combines pathology (disease-related structural/functional changes) and physiology (normal

body function).

Homeostasis

maintaining a relatively stable internal environment despite

external changes. Loss of homeostasis can contribute to disease

Examples of homeostasis

blood glucose, blood pressure, body temperature, blood pH, oxygen, and water balance

Etiology

the cause of a disease—the factor that starts the disease process

Idiopathic disease

cause is unknown. Do not confuse this with iatrogenic, which means caused by medical treatment or a diagnostic procedure.

Signs vs. symptoms

a ______ is objective and can be observed or measured (for example,

high blood pressure or fever). A _______ is subjective and reported by the patient (for

example, pain, fatigue, nausea)

Chronic disease

develops gradually and lasts a long time. Examples include diabetes and hypertension. Acute disease develops quickly and is usually short-term.

Cell response to mild stress

mild or gradual stress may lead to adaptation. Stronger stress may cause cell injury, and severe or prolonged injury may cause cell death

Hypertrophy

an increase in cell size. A common example is skeletal muscle enlargement after resistance training

Hyperplasia

an increase in the number of cells. Tissue growth or production of new skin cells during healing is an example.

Atrophy

a decrease in cell size. Immobilization, such as wearing a cast, can cause muscle _________

Metaplasia

one mature cell type changes into another cell type in response to chronic stress or irritation. Smoking-related airway changes are an example.

Hypoxia and ATP

reduced oxygen (hypoxia) → mitochondria produce less ATP → the cell has less energy → cell function decreases and injury may occur.

Cell swelling

ATP decreases → membrane ion pumps fail → sodium (Na+) enters the cell → water follows sodium by osmosis → the cell swells.

Necrosis vs. apoptosis

Necrosis is uncontrolled cell death after severe injury: the cell swells, the membrane ruptures, and inflammation occurs. Apoptosis is controlled/programmed cell death: the cell shrinks, forms fragments, and is removed with little inflammation.

Cell theory

Know that the cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made of cells, and cells come from existing cells

Nucleus

contains DNA and helps control cell activities.

Mitochondria

the major site of ATP production. ATP provides usable energy for cell function

Ribosomes

make proteins. Protein production is essential for enzymes, hormones, and structural proteins.

Golgi apparatus

modifies, sorts, and packages proteins after they are made.

Diffusion

passive movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Osmosis

the movement (diffusion) of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Definition of inflammation

the body's protective response to injury or infection. Its goals include removing harmful agents, limiting damage, and beginning healing.

Five signs of inflammation

redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function

Why redness occurs

vasodilation increases blood flow to injured tissue, producing redness and warmth.

Why swelling occurs

Know that capillaries become more permeable (leaky), allowing fluid to move into tissues and produce swelling

Neutrophils

early 'first responders.' They kill bacteria and perform phagocytosis.

Macrophages

important clean-up cells. They remove bacteria and dead cells and release signals that support healing

Stages of tissue healing

1) hemostasis, 2) inflammation, 3) proliferation, 4) remodeling. During remodeling, collagen is reorganized and the scar becomes stronger.

Parts of the cardiovascular system

includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels

Pulmonary circulation

moves blood between the heart and lungs. In the lungs, blood gains oxygen and releases carbon dioxide before returning to the left side of the heart.

Capillaries

major exchange vessels where oxygen, nutrients, and wastes move between blood and tissues

Cardiac output

= Heart Rate × Stroke Volume (CO = HR × SV).

Systolic blood pressure

the arterial pressure during ventricular contraction.

Exercise response

increases heart rate and cardiac output so that more oxygen and nutrients can reach active tissues

hypertension

blood pressure remains too high over time.

Why blood pressure rises

increased cardiac output, narrowed arteries/increased resistance, and increased blood volume.

Silent killer

hypertension, most people have no obvious symptoms even while organ damage may be occurring

Modifiable risk factors

lifestyle-related risk factors such as high sodium intake, poor diet, physical inactivity, excess body weight, smoking, and excessive alcohol use. Age and family history are not modifiable.

Heart damage from hypertension

high blood pressure → heart works harder → heart muscle thickens (hypertrophy) → over time, heart failure may develop.

Diagnosing hypertension

should not be diagnosed from one casual reading. Proper measurement and repeated readings across visits are important.

atherosclerosis

involves plaque buildup in artery walls. Plaque narrows the opening and reduces blood flow

Risk factors for atherosclerosis

older age, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, smoking, and obesity.

Symptoms in early disease of Atherosclerosis

usually causes no symptoms. Symptoms often appear only when disease becomes more advanced.

Complications of atherosclerosis

heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.

Coronary artery disease (CAD)

occurs when plaque narrows coronary arteries, reducing blood flow and oxygen delivery to heart muscle

Angina

reduced coronary blood flow and oxygen to the myocardium can cause chest pain

Heart failure

heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. It does not mean the heart has completely stopped

heart failure symptoms

shortness of breath, fatigue, and swelling (especially in the legs/ankles) caused by fluid buildup

Echocardiography and ejection fraction

an echocardiogram uses ultrasound to evaluate heart structure and pumping function. It can measure ejection fraction, a common indicator of how effectively the heart pumps.