The Enlightenment, American Revolution, and French Revolution

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering major figures, concepts, and events from the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, the American Revolution, and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.

Geocentric theory

The belief that Earth is the center of the universe, with all celestial bodies revolving around it.

Scientific revolution

A period of major advances in science during the 16th–18th centuries, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and reason.

Heliocentric theory

The idea that the Sun is at the center of the solar system, with planets orbiting it.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian scientist who supported heliocentrism and advanced physics, astronomy, and the scientific method.

Scientific method

A systematic process for investigating phenomena, involving observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and conclusion.

Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist known for laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 17th–18th centuries based on reason and thought, promoting science, individual rights, and the power of individuals to solve problems.

Social contract

A political theory holding that governments derive authority from agreements among free individuals, with Rousseau noting people are born good but corrupted by government, environment, and education.

John Locke

An English philosopher who advocated natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and influenced liberal democracy.

Philosophe

Enlightenment thinkers in France who promoted reason, progress, and reform.

Voltaire

A French writer and philosopher who championed civil liberties, attacked superstition, and ridiculed oppressive government, prejudice, and bigotry.

Montesquieu

A French philosopher who proposed the separation of powers into three equally divided branches, viewing the British system as the best form of government.

Rousseau

A French philosopher who emphasized popular sovereignty and the social contract, believing people are born good but are corrupted by society.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer advocating women’s rights and education.

Salon

Social gatherings where intellectuals met to discuss ideas during the Enlightenment.

Baroque

An artistic style popular in the 17th century, characterized by grandeur, drama, and ornamentation.

Neoclassical

An art style inspired by classical antiquity that emphasizes simplicity and symmetry.

Enlightenment despot

An absolute ruler who implemented governmental and social reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideas.

Catherine the Great

The Empress of Russia who expanded Russian territory and promoted Enlightenment reforms.

Declaration of Independence

The 1776 document adopted on July 4th declaring the American colonies’ independence from Britain.

Thomas Jefferson

An American Founding Father, principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and third U.S. president.

Checks and balances

A system where each branch of government can limit the powers of the other branches.

Federal systems

Political systems that divide power between national and regional governments.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, guaranteeing individual freedoms.

Rationalism

The belief that truth is arrived at by reason.

Natural law

The principle that objects in nature behave in ways that humans can understand and predict.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that government is created by and subject to the will of the people.

Intolerable Acts of 1774

British punitive response to the Boston Tea Party that closed Boston harbor and took control of the government of Massachusetts.

First Continental Congress

A gathering of delegates that met in Philadelphia in the fall of 1774 seeking full citizen rights and mutual support against British actions.

National Convention

A French governing assembly that ruled for 3 years, tasked with creating a constitution, keeping down the revolution, and fighting a war.

Committee of Public Safety

A French body established to direct the army against foreign invaders during external threats.

Reign of Terror

A French revolutionary phase based on the principle that it was necessary to annihilate both internal and external enemies of the republic.

Maximillan de Robespierre

A member of the National Convention who carried out the Reign of Terror using the guillotine to execute people of all classes.

Directory

The French government established under the 1795 constitution in which 5 directors ruled, the wealthy held control, and only property owners could vote.

Coup d’etat of 1799

The overthrow of the French Directory through which Napoleon Bonaparte became the dictator of France.

Scorched earth policy

A military strategy encountered by Napoleon's 600,000 marching troops in Russia in 1812, leading to the retreat of the French army.

The 100 days

The period from March 20th to June 8th, 1815, when Napoleon escaped exile and ruled France again until his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.