Unit 5 Learning

Psych 108

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning an association between two stimuli, so a previously neutral stimulus can trigger a response.

What did Pavlov observe about dogs?

Dogs began salivating at cues associated with food, such as an assistant’s coat or footsteps.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that triggers a response without prior learning. Example: food in a dog’s mouth.

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

The automatic, unlearned response to a UCS. Example: salivating at food.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after being paired with a UCS. Example: a bell paired with feeding.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

The learned response to a CS. Example: salivating when hearing the bell alone.

Before conditioning, what happens when a dog hears a bell and then receives food?

The bell produces no relevant response; the food triggers salivation.

During conditioning, what happens?

The bell (neutral stimulus) is repeatedly paired with food (UCS), which triggers salivation (UCR).

After conditioning, what happens when the dog hears the bell?

The bell (CS) alone triggers salivation (CR).

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

When the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR weakens and may disappear.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The temporary reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest, when the CS is presented again.

What is reconditioning?

When the CS and UCS are paired again, the CR returns more quickly because the original learning left a trace.

What is higher-order conditioning?

Pairing a new neutral stimulus with an established CS to create another learned association, without directly pairing it with the original UCS.

What is stimulus generalization?

Responding to stimuli that resemble the CS as if they were the CS.

What is an example of stimulus generalization?

A child frightened by a large black dog also fears a small black dog.

What is stimulus discrimination?

Learning to respond to the CS but not to similar stimuli.

What is an example of stimulus discrimination?

A child frightened by a large black dog shows no fear of a small brown dog.

What is contiguity in classical conditioning?

The CS and UCS occur close together in time, helping an association form.

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

The CS provides reliable predictive information about the UCS.

What is zero contingency?

The CS does not predict the UCS because the UCS occurs just as often without the CS; an association is not learned.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning that links behavior to its consequences.

How do favorable and unfavorable outcomes affect behavior in operant conditioning?

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes become more likely; behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes become less likely.

What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened; responses followed by unsatisfying outcomes are weakened.

What did Thorndike’s puzzle-box experiments involve?

Cats escaped a puzzle box by tripping a lever; Thorndike timed their attempts and developed the Law of Effect.

What is a Skinner box (operant chamber)?

A controlled setting researchers use to study how consequences shape behavior over time.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding something desirable to increase a behavior. Example: giving a treat for sitting on command.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing something aversive to increase a behavior. Example: removing a tedious task as a reward.

What is positive punishment?

Adding something aversive to decrease a behavior. Example: scolding after misbehavior.

What is negative punishment?

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior. Example: taking away screen time.

What is a primary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that is innately satisfying and requires no learning, such as food, water, warmth, or sleep.

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that gains value through learned association with primary reinforcers, such as money, grades, praise, or tokens.

What is continuous reinforcement?

Reinforcing every correct response. It produces fast learning, but the behavior extinguishes quickly when reinforcement stops.

What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?

Reinforcing only some responses. Learning is slower, but behavior is more resistant to extinction.

What is a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule?

Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: a free drink after buying 10 coffees.

What is a variable-ratio (VR) schedule?

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Example: a slot machine.

What is a fixed-interval (FI) schedule?

Reinforcement for the first response after a set amount of time. Example: a weekly paycheck.

What is a variable-interval (VI) schedule?

Reinforcement for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time. Example: refreshing an inbox for a reply.

How do ratio and interval schedules differ?

Ratio schedules depend on the number of responses; interval schedules depend on time.

Which schedules tend to produce higher response rates?

Ratio schedules tend to produce higher response rates.

Which partial schedules tend to produce steadier responding and greater resistance to extinction?

Variable schedules, especially variable-ratio and variable-interval schedules.

Why do psychologists advise against punishment?

Punishment may suppress behavior quickly, but it teaches what not to do, can model aggression, and can create fear or anxiety toward the punisher.

What is escape learning?

Learning a response that ends an aversive stimulus already underway. Example: turning off a blaring alarm.

What is avoidance learning?

Learning a response that prevents an aversive stimulus from starting. Example: leaving early to avoid rush-hour traffic.

What is cognitive learning?

Learning that involves mental processes such as expectations, insights, and observation, including when no reinforcement is present.

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs but is not shown until there is a reason to use it.

What did Tolman’s rat-maze study show?

Rats explored a maze without a reward and formed a cognitive map; when food was later introduced, they navigated well, showing that learning had occurred earlier.

What is a cognitive map?

A mental representation of the layout of an environment.

What does “learning is not the same as performance” mean?

Learning can occur without being immediately demonstrated; performance may wait until there is a reason to use what was learned.

What is insight learning?

A sudden understanding of a problem’s solution through mental restructuring rather than incremental trial and error.

What did Köhler observe in chimpanzees?

Chimpanzees paused and then combined objects, such as stacking boxes, to reach food—an example of insight learning.

What did Bandura’s Bobo doll study show?

Children who watched an adult act aggressively toward an inflatable Bobo doll later imitated that aggression.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching a model’s behavior and its consequences.

What are the four processes involved in observational learning?

Attention (noticing the behavior), retention (remembering it), reproduction (being able to perform it), and motivation (having a reason to do it).