AP Psychology Unit 5

Cognition

All the mental processes involved in gaining and using knowledge.

Memory

The process of storing, retaining, and recalling information.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.

Effortful Processing

Retention of facts and experiences one consciously knows and can declare.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills without conscious awareness.

Procedural Memory

Memory for automatic skills and actions.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections that helps form long-term memories.

Working Memory Model

Baddeley's model explaining how short-term memory manipulates information.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that focuses attention and coordinates tasks.

Phonological Loop

Part of working memory that handles verbal or auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Multi-Store Model

Atkinson and Shiffrin's model with sensory, short-term, and long-term memory stores.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting under a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage that holds limited information briefly.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless store of information.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding/processing of information.

Levels of Processing Model

The deeper the processing, the stronger the memory.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on surface features like appearance.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of the word.

Phonemic Processing

Encoding how a word sounds.

Semantic Processing

Encoding based on meaning.

Parallel Processing

Interpreting multiple stimuli at the same time.

Enriching Encoding

Strategies to help us remember stuff!

Mnemonic Device

A memory aid that uses patterns or vivid imagery.

Method of Loci

Associating information with specific physical locations.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful and manageable units.

Next-in-Line-Effect

Difficulty in recalling information concerning events immediately preceding their turn to perform.

Spacing Effect

Better memory when learning is spaced out over time.

Massed Practice

Cramming information all at once.

Distributed Practice

Spreading learning sessions over time.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall for the first and last items on a list.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for the last items on a list.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to filter out all stimuli except for what is important to us.

Storage

Keeping encoded information over time.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to things you already know.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life experiences.

Amnesia (Retrograde/Anterograde)

Memory loss caused by injury or trauma.

Alzheimer's Disease

A brain disorder that causes progressive memory loss and confusion.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember events from early childhood.

Reinforcement

Increases likelihood of behavior occurring again.

Punishment

Consequence of an event, decreases the likelihood of behavior happening again.

Retrieval

Getting/recovering information from memory storage.

Recall

Bringing information to mind without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information.

Context-Dependent Memory

Remembering better when in the same environment as learning.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Remembering experiences that match your current mood.

State-Dependent Memory

Remembering better when in the same physical or emotional state as when learning occurred.

Retrieval Practice Process

Actively recalling information to strengthen memory.

Testing Effect

Improved memory after self-testing compared to rereading.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of your own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve

The pattern showing that memory declines rapidly at first, then levels off.

Encoding Failure

When information never gets stored in memory.

Interference Theory (Retroactive/Proactive)

When old and new information compete with each other.

Inadequate Retrieval (Tip of the Tongue)

When you know something but can't quite recall it.

Repression

Unconsciously blocking distressing memories.

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information distorts memory of an event.

Source Amnesia

Forgetting where you learned information.

Constructive Memory

Memory is influenced by imagination, expectations, or new information.

George Sperling

Conducted the Iconic Memory Experiment.

George "Magic" Miller

Proposed the capacity of short-term memory is Magic 7 +/- 2.

Working Memory Capacity

Short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming information.

Memory Trace Kandel/Schwartz

Permanent change in the nervous system brought about by memorizing something.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event.

Elizabeth Loftus Study

Research on memory reconstruction and how memories can be altered by misinformation.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking that focuses on finding one correct solution.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that explores many possible solutions or ideas.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or ideas.

Prototype

The best example of a concept in your mind.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that speeds up problem-solving but may not always be correct.

Availability Heuristic

Judging how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representative Heuristic

Judging something based on how much it fits your idea of a category.

Mental Set

Using the same solution that worked before, even if it doesn't fit the new problem.

Fixation

Being stuck on one way of thinking and unable to see another solution.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing a behavior because of time or money already spent.

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing past random events affect future ones.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

Babbling Stage

Stage when babies make sounds that are not yet words.

One-Word Stage

Stage when a child speaks mostly single words.

Two-Word Stage

Stage when children combine words into simple sentences.

Overextension

Using one word to represent many things incorrectly.

Overgeneralization

Applying a grammar rule too broadly.

Skinner

Psychologist who believed language is learned through reinforcement and imitation.

Chomsky

Linguist who proposed humans are born with a universal grammar ability.

Whorf

Linguist who suggested language influences thought (linguistic relativity).

Critical Period

Time frame in early life when language learning is easiest.