Introduction to Psychology: Intelligence, Memory, Emotion, and Learning

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key topics in psychology, including intelligence testing, theories of emotion, motivation models, memory processes, learning schedules, conditioning principles, and cognitive heuristics.

Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of test results.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped distribution where most scores cluster near the average.

Raven's Progressive Matrices

An intelligence test designed to be a bias-free test.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

A theory proposing three distinct intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical.

Analytical Intelligence

The ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and solve academic problems (book smarts).

Creative Intelligence

The ability to react and adapt to new situations.

Practical Intelligence

The ability required for everyday tasks and problem-solving (street smarts).

Gardner's 8 Intelligences

A theory identifying eight types of intelligence: linguistic, logical (math), musical, spatial (art), bodily (kinesthetic), intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), and naturalist.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason quickly, which tends to decrease during adulthood.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which increase with age.

Intellectual Disability

A condition characterized by an IQ score below 70.

Savant Syndrome

A condition characterized by a low IQ combined with an exceptional skill in one specific area.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability involving self-awareness, empathy, and social skills.

Alfred Binet

Psychologist who created the first intelligence test based on mental age.

James-Lange Theory

A theory of emotion stating that a physical feeling leads directly to an emotional response.

Cannon-Bard Theory

A theory of emotion stating that physical reactions and emotional feelings happen at the same time.

Two-Factor Theory

A theory proposing that emotion is determined by physical arousal combined with a cognitive label.

Lazarus Theory

A cognitive approach to the theory of emotion.

Drive Reduction Theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is driven by the desire to reduce physical discomfort, such as hunger.

Arousal Theory

A theory proposing that optimal performance occurs at a moderate level of arousal, known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational framework proposing that humans are driven by a hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Encoding

The memory process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage

The memory process of keeping and maintaining information over time.

Retrieval

The memory process of getting information out of storage.

Information Processing Model

A model that compares the workings of human memory to a computer.

Sensory Memory

A stage of memory that very briefly holds sensory information about the stimuli around us.

Working Memory

Active processing of incoming information overseen by the central executive.

Short-Term Memory

A memory stage with a limited capacity of approximately $7 \pm 2$ items.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Synaptic strengthening that serves as the biological basis for memory.

Semantic Encoding

The encoding of meaning, identified as the best method of encoding information.

Acoustic Encoding

The encoding of sound and auditory information.

Iconic Encoding

The visual encoding of images.

Chunking

A memory technique involving the grouping of information into meaningful units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids used to assist in the retention and retrieval of information.

Spacing Effect

The phenomenon whereby studying information spaced out over time leads to better long-term retention.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last words in a list more accurately than the middle words.

Retrograde Amnesia

A condition characterized by the loss of past memories formed prior to an event.

Anterograde Amnesia

A condition in which a person is unable to form new long-term memories.

Misinformation Effect

A memory error occurring when misleading or false information alters one's memory of an event.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

Classical Conditioning

A form of learning demonstrated by Pavlov in which an organism learns associations between stimuli (unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response).

Acquisition

The initial stage in conditioning when a response is first learned.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning pioneered by Skinner where behaviors are learned through their consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

A method to increase behavior by adding a rewarding stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

A method to increase behavior by removing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus.

Positive Punishment

A method to decrease behavior by administering an unpleasant stimulus.

Negative Punishment

A method to decrease behavior by taking away a desirable stimulus.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses (such as a reward after 10 purchases).

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable, random number of responses (such as playing a slot machine).

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a response is rewarded only after a specified, set amount of time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a response is rewarded after random, unpredictable intervals of time.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which rewards are given for small steps that guide behavior closer to the desired goal.

Law of Effect

The principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are strengthened and more likely to increase, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are decreased.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others, demonstrated by Albert Bandura's Bobo doll study.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a topic or decision.

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to make judgments based on stereotypes or how closely something matches a prototype.