Endocrine System, Diabetes Mellitus, and Microbiome Function

Vocabulary flashcards covering pancreatic hormones, diabetes mellitus types and complications, secondary endocrine tissues, prostaglandins, and the microbiome as an endocrine organ.

Insulin

A hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets that lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating tissue cells to absorb glucose and prompting the liver to store glucose as glycogen.

Glucagon

A hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets when blood glucose levels drop, stimulating the liver to break down stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.

Hyperglycemia

Elevated levels of blood glucose resulting from an inadequate amount of insulin or a diminished number of normal insulin receptors, serving as a cardinal sign of diabetes mellitus.

Glycosuria

The presence of excess glucose spilling over into the urine when high blood glucose levels overwhelm the filtering capacity of the kidneys.

Polyuria

The production of excessive quantities of urine by the kidneys to flush out extra loads of glucose from the body.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst triggered by body dehydration resulting from polyuria.

Polyphagia

Continuous or excessive hunger caused by cellular starvation when glucose cannot enter cells despite high blood glucose levels.

Ketone Bodies

Acidic byproducts produced when the body abnormally metabolizes protein and fat for energy due to untreated diabetes.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis

A severe metabolic complication caused by the accumulation of ketone bodies that drops blood pH, producing symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fruity breath odor, coma, and death.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

An autoimmune condition accounting for $10\%$ of diabetics (formerly called juvenile-onset or IDDM) in which antibodies attack pancreatic islet beta cells, causing a rapid onset usually before age $30$ and resulting in an absolute insulin deficiency.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

A condition accounting for $90\%$ of diabetics (formerly called maturity-onset or NIDDM) characterized by cellular insulin resistance and a gradual onset usually after age $40$.

Gestational Diabetes

A form of diabetes that develops in about $10\%$ of pregnant women, which usually disappears after childbirth but leads to type 2 diabetes in about $50\%$ of affected women later in life.

Characteristics of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Table

A comparison table detailing onset age, rate of onset, percentage of total cases, causes, contributing factors, and treatments for Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Somatostatin

A hormone produced by pancreatic islet cells that mainly functions to help regulate the secretion of other pancreatic hormones.

Pancreatic Islet Hormones and Age-Related Changes

An overview outlining pancreatic islet hormone targets and effects, microvascular and nerve damage from hyperglycemia, and age-related changes in the endocrine system.

Gonads

The primary sex organs—testes in males and ovaries in females—that produce sex hormones, stimulate gamete production (sperm and eggs/ova), and influence secondary sex characteristics.

Estrogen

A hormone secreted by ovarian follicles and the placenta that promotes female secondary sex characteristics and helps maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy.

Progesterone

A hormone secreted by the corpus luteum and placenta that, in combination with estrogen, maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy.

Testosterone

A male hormone secreted by specialized cells in the testes that triggers male sexual characteristics and sustains sperm production.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

A hormone secreted by heart muscle cells when stretched by rising blood pressure that triggers changes to lower blood pressure.

Prostaglandins

Lipid molecules produced by cells throughout the body that act locally in the tissue where they are produced to regulate activities of neighboring cells, including pain, fever, inflammation, blood clotting, and vasodilation.

Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

Medications such as ibuprofen that relieve pain and fever by blocking the synthesis of specific prostaglandins.

Intestinal Microbiota (Microbiome)

Trillions of microbes residing in the intestinal tract that function as the body's largest endocrine organ by secreting hundreds of products into the bloodstream to influence distal organs and systems.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

A hormone secreted by gut microbiota that helps regulate mood, emotion, and anxiety; a deficiency in GABA may contribute to anxiety and depression.

Pheromones

Hormones influenced by gut microbiota that play crucial roles in sexual recognition, attraction, and mating behavior.