Exam Two

Chapters 5-7

Consciousness

our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives.

• Hard to define

Monism

perspective that the mind and body are NOT separate

• Believe that consciousness is a byproduct of brain activity

*Scientists believe in Monism

Dualism

the mind and body work SEPARATELY and are distinct entities

• Believe that consciousness is separate from the brain

Altered States of Consciousness

a condition of awareness that is DISTINCTLY different in quality/pattern from WAKING consciousness.

• Understand that it is not just ‘awake'‘ or ‘asleep’

• Most Common Altered States of Consciousness: hypnosis, meditation, sleep and dreams, and the effect of drugs

Sleep

the most common state of consciousness; naturally occurring

Circadian Rhythm

cyclical changes that happen on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes (ex. hormone release; brain waves; body temperate; drowsiness)

Biological Clock

term for the area of the hypothalamus that is responsible for controlling our levels of alertness

Melatonin

hormone that triggers feeling of sleepiness; based on light → produces sleepiness when light decreases

• Artificial Lighting (lamps; electronic screens) can prevent the production of melatonin

Sleep Stage One

similar to relative AWAKE stages; brain is still pretty active

Sleep Stage One

brain activity slows down; light sleep; we spend most of our time in stage two of sleep as adults

Sleep Stages Three and Four

combined stage; the least active and most quiet stage of sleep; deep sleep

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

similar to ‘awake’ sleep; high brain activity, vivid dreaming, temporary muscle paralyisis, rapid eye movement under the eyelids

REM Rebound

the bodies ability to provide and increase of REM sleep when an individual goes without it for a period of time

• Body is able to go into REM sleep quickly and stay there for a longer time

*Able to show that REM sleep is important to biological functioning.

What Stages of Sleep are n-REM?

stages 1-4 → quiet, restful sleep where the body is in rest (heart-rate slows, breathing slows, and brain-activity slows); dreaming is less frequent and not vivid.

Why Do We Sleep?

to repair and restore the body → to lower body, metabolism, and brain activity to help conserve energy and lengthen life

Microsleeps

going one day WITHOUT sleep; nodding off and involuntarily falling asleep; not harmful, but can be if behind the wheel

Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis

going three to four days WITHOUT sleeping; experiencing psychosis and having hallucinations

Where Stage of Sleep is Dreaming Most Common?

REM

Lucid Dreaming

experience of one becomming aware that they are dreaming

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

physically acting out and experiencing vivid, unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden movements.

(kicking, punching, shouting, or jumping out of bed while dreaming).

Insomnia

sleep disorder that makes it hard to fall asleep at night, stay asleep throughout the night (wake up often), and/or wake up too early and failing to fall back asleep

Narcolepsy

chronic neurological sleep disorder that impairs the brain's ability to control sleep-wake cycles, leading to severe daytime drowsiness and sudden sleep attacks; attacks can last anywhere from a few seconds, to a few minutes, and in less frequent cases, as long as an hour

Night Terrors

sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, confusion, and sweating, followed by a return to DEEP sleep → occurs exclusively in NREM sleep; harmless

Sleep Hygiene

having healthy DAILY HABITS and a restful bedroom environment that help you form a strong association between your bed and sleep.

• Go to sleep and wake up at the same time EVERY DAY

• Only use your bed for SLEEPING

• Don’t take naps

• Turn off electronics AT LEAST one hour BEFORE bed

*Trying to BREAK the association between getting in bed and trying to fall asleep

Hynosis

a state of consciousness characterized by focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and heightened suggestibility.

• Kind’ve like a flow-state like when you are doing something you love

• People who are imaginative tend to be more likely to be hypnotized because they are more likely to PLAY ALONG

Cold Presser Test

lab study test to test how long an individual is able to keep their hand in a freezing cold tub of water consciously vs. under hypnosis.

• When consciously aware: individual removed their hand very fast

• When under hypnosis: individual was able to hold a normal, long conversation WITHOUT removing their hand

Sociocognitive Theory

a person’s experience with hypnosis is affected by their beliefs and expectations ABOUT HYPNOSIS.

Dissociation Theory

hypnosis is an induced state of SEPARATION between cognitive functions that are usually well-integrated.

Conditioning (Learning)

a basic form of learning where an individual builds an automatic connection between an environmental event and a behavioral response.

(ex. the connection between our mother’s face and voice).

Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning

a type of learning where you connect an automatic, natural reaction to a new, previously unrelated signal.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

something that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction WITHOUT any prior learning or training.

(ex. the smell of a cut onion (UCS) automatically makes your eyes water (UCR).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

a natural, automatic, and unlearned REACTION that happens right away when you experience an unconditioned stimulus.

(ex. breathing in dust (UCS), automatically sneezing (UCR).

*Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a sound, object, or event that INITIALLY DOES NOT trigger any specific, automatic behavioral or reflexive response on its own → after repeated pairings through classical conditioning, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).

(ex. when you smell a brand new fragrance, you don’t have any emotional ties to it, and it is completely neutral to you. However, if someone you fall in love with wears that scent everyday, that scent will later trigger feelings of affection all on its own).

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned reaction to a PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL trigger.

(ex. you once got food poisoning from sushi, so now every time you see or smell sushi, you instantly feel nauseous).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

a PREVIOUSLY NEUTRAL SIGNAL that, after being paired repeatedly with an automatic trigger, learns to cause a learned reaction on its own.

(ex. you hear a text notification sound, which instantly makes you reach for your phone, even though you are in the middle of an important task).

Acquisition

the first and initial stage of learning or conditioning when a new behavior, skill, or association is FIRST introduced and GRADUALLY strengthened.

(ex. you are walking down the street, and a large, barking guard dog (UCS) jumps against a fence, terrifying you. The next day, you pass by the same street, and you notice the dog is inside. However, the moment you see the yellow house, your heart begins to race, palms get sweaty, and you feel a wave of anxiety (CR).

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

the gradual weakening and FINAL DISAPPEARANCE of a learned BEAVIOR when the reward or trigger that kept it going is REMOVED.

(ex. when you get a notification (stimulus) on a working phone, you instantly pick it up and unlock it (the behavior). You see notifications and text messages, which provides rewards through instant hits of dopamine (reinforcement). HOWEVER, if your phone breaks, and your screen lights up, you try to unlock it, and nothing happens. You try to get your reward, but nothing happens. You repeatedly try again, but nothing happens. The next day, when this happens, you try once or twice, remember it doesn’t work, and put it down. ON DAY 7, when your screen lights up, you completely ignore it (extinction achieved). 

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned REACTION (the CR) when the trigger (the CS) is repeatedly presented without the original pairing (the UCS).

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning where voluntary behavior is SHAPED and CHANGED by its consequences, such as REWARDS or PUNISHMENTS.

Reinforcement

any CONSEQUENCE that makes a behavior MORE likely to happen AGAIN; positive and negative.

Positive Reinforcement

the ADDITION of a rewarding stimulus AFTER a behavior to make that behavior MORE likely to happen AGAIN.

(ex. a dog sits on command and gets a treat for complying, making them more likely to repeat the command in the future).

Negative Reinforcement

a behavior that is strengthened or increased by REMOVING an UNPLEASANT or UNCOMFORTABLE stimulus.

(ex. You put on sunscreen (behavior) to avoid getting a painful sunburn (avoidance of negative outcome).

Punishment

any consequence that follows a behavior and DECREASES the LIKELIHOOD that the behavior will happen again → positive and negative

Positive Punishment

ADDING an UNPLEASANT CONSEQUENCE after a BAD BEHAVIOR to make it happen LESS often.

(ex. assigning extra chores to a teenager who broke curfew (adds extra work to stop the rule-breaking).

Negative Punishment

a method used to decrease an unwanted behavior by TAKING AWAY a PLEASANT or DESIRABLE stimulus right after that behavior happens.

(ex. giving a person a speeding ticket after going 90mph in a 50mph zone).

Schedule of Reinforcement

a description of when and how often a behavior is reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

an operant conditioning feedback rule where a desired behavior is rewarded EVERY SINGLE TIME it happens.

(ex. Giving a dog a treat every time it sits on command).

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

an operant conditioning feedback rule where a desired behavior is rewarded only SOME of the time, rather than every time it occurs.

(ex. A slot machine pays out randomly; you might win on the 3rd pull, the 20th pull, or the 100th pull, keeping you hooked).