Functionalist theories on religion

what is society for functionalists

a system of interrelated parts or social institutions, such as religion, the family and the economy. society is like an organism which basic needs that need to be met.

what is society’s most basic need

the need for social order and solidarity so its members can cooperate with a value consensus.

what does religion play a central part in according to functionalists

religious institutions play a central part in creating and maintaining value consensus, order and solidarity. The first functionalist to develop this idea was Durkheim

what was Durkeims idea on the Sacred and the profane

for Durkheim the key feature of religion was not believing in a God, spirits or the supernatural, but a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane found in all religions.

what is the ‘sacred’ in Durkeims idea of the Sacred and the profane

things set apart from the forbidden, that inspire a feeling of awe, fear and wonder and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions.

what is the ‘profane’ in Durkeims idea of the Sacred and the profane

the profane are things that have no special significance- that are ordinary and mundane.

Durkheim believes that religion is never simply just a set of beliefs, what does he also think religion involves

definite rituals or practices in relation to the sacred, and these rituals are collective- performed by social groups.

what does the fact that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings in believers indicate to Durkeim

that this is because they are symbols representing something of great power which in his view can only be in society itself since society is the only thing powerful enough to command such feelings.

what are people worshipping when they worship the sacred symbols

society itself

what function do sacred symbols perform to Durkheim

although sacred symbols vary from religion to religion, they all perform the essential function of uniting believers into a single moral community.

how did Durkheim believe that the essence of all religion could be found

by studying its simplest form, in the simplest type of society- clan society.

what study did Durkheim use to find the essence of religion

he used studies of the Arunta, an Australian tribe with a clan system.

what did the Arunta clan consist of

bands of kin who come together periodically to perform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem.

what is the totem to the clan

the totem is the clans emblem, such as an animal or plant that symbolises the clans origins and identity

what did the shared totemic rituals serve the group

to reinforce the gorup’s solidarity and sense of belonging

how does the totem have an effect on members

it inspires feelings of awe in the clan’s members as it represents the power of the group on which the individual is ‘utterly dependant’

what do sacred symbols represent to Durkheim

society’s collective conscience which is the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible

what does regular shared religious rituals reinforce

the collective conscience and maintains social integration.

what does participating in shared rituals do for individuals

it binds them together reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty.

they also remind the individual of the power of society- without which they themselves are nothing, and to which they owe everything

how does religion also then perform an important function for the individual

by making us feel part of something greater than ourselves, religion reinvigorates and strengthens us to face life’s trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that would otherwise defeat us.

what does Durkeim see religion as the source of

not only social solidarity but also of our intellectual or cognitive capacities- our ability to reason and think conceptually.

whats an example of religion being a source of our intellectual or cognitive capacities

in order to think at all, we need categories such as time, space, cause, substance, number etc.

and secondly, we need to use the same categories as others

in Durkheims view what is religion the origin of

the concepts and categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating

what did Durkheim and Mauss argue in their book ‘Primitive Classification’

religion provides basic categories such as time, space and causation-

whats an example of Durkeim and Mauss argument in ‘Primitive Classification’

with ideas about a creator bringing the world into being at the beginning of time

what is Worsleys criticism of Durkeims theory/ies

the evidence on totemism is unsound

he notes that there is no sharp distinction between the sacred and the profane, and that different clans share the same totems and even if he is right about toetemism, this does not prove that he has discovered the essence of all other religions.

how can Durkheims criticism be crirised in regards to scale

his theory may apply better to small- scale societies with a single religion. it is harder to apply it to large scale societies, where two or more religious communities may be in conflict. his theory may explain social integration within communities, but not the conflicts between them.

how does postmodernists like Mestrovic criticise Durkheim theory’s

argues that his ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society, because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience, so there is no longer single shared value system for religion to reinforce.

how does Malinowski agree with Durkheim but also differ

agrees that religion promotes solidarity but in his view does so by performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity.

what two types of situations does Malinowski identify where religion performs physiological functions.

1. when the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and thus uncertain

2. at times of life crisis

how does Malinowski argue that religion performs physiological functions when the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and thus uncertain

in his study of the Trobriand Islanders of the Western Pacific, Malinowski contrasts fishing in the lagoon and fishing in the ocean

explain Malinowskis comparison between fishing in a lagoon and an ocean

• Lagoon fishing is safe and uses the predictable and successful method of poisoning. when the islander fish in the lagoon, there is no ritual.

• Ocean fishing is dangerous and uncertain, and is always accompanied by ‘canoe magic’- rituals to ensure a safe and successful expedition. this gives people a sense of control, which eases tension, gives them confidence to undertake hazardous tasks and reinforce group solidarity. he sees ritual serving as a ‘god of the gaps’- it fills the gaps in human beings’ control over the world, such as being unable to control the outcome of a fishing trip.

explain how religion performs the psychological function at times og life crises

events such as birth, puberty, marriage and especially death mark major and disruptive changes in social groups. Religion helps to minimise disruption.

example of when religion performs the psychological function at times of life crises

For example, the funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors, while the notion of immorality gives comfort to the bereaved by denying the fact of death. Malinowski believes that death is the main reason for the existence of religious belief

hoe does Parsons see religion

sees religion as helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes.

what two functions of religion does Parsons identify and say religion performs in modern society

• it creates and legitimates society’s central values

• it is the primary source of meaning

explain Parsons thought on religion creating and legitimising societies central values

religion creates and legitimates society basic norms and values by sacralising them (making them sacred)

example of religion creating and legitimising societies central values

in the USA Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline which serves to promote value consensus and thus social stability

What type of questions does religion answer to act as a source of meaning (Parsons)?

It answers 'ultimate' questions about the human condition, such as why the good suffer and why some die young.

Why can events like suffering and premature death undermine commitment to society's values?

They defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless

What is an example of a religious explanation for suffering according to Parsons?

Explaining suffering as a test of faith that will be rewarded in heaven.

How does religion providing meaning help maintain social stability?

It enables people to adjust to adverse events and circumstances, preserving their commitment to societal values.

who came up with the theory of civil religion

Robert Bellah

what was robert Bellah interested in (theorist behind civil religion)

how religion unifies society, especially a multi-faith society like America.

what unifies American society

an overarching civil religion

what is a civil religion

a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself. in the american case civil religion is a faith in Americanism or ‘the American way of life’

what does Bellah argue in regards to civil religion

that it integrates society in a way that America’s many different churches and denominations cannot. While none of these can claim the loyalty of all Americas, civil religion can

what does American civil religion involve

loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God, both of which are equated with being true American.

how is civil religion expressed

in various rituals, symbols and beliefs; such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag, singing the national anthem and phrases such as ‘one nation under God’

what type of God is in American civil religion

not a specifically Catholic, Protestant or Jewish God but rather an American God. it sacralises the American way of life and binds together Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds

what are functional alternatives

non-religious beliefs and practises that perform functions similar to those of organised religion, such as reinforcing shared values or maintaining social cohesion

what does Bellah argue in regards to functional alternatives

although in America, civil religion involves a belief in God, Bellah argues that this does not have to be the case - some other belief system could perform the same function

examples of functional alternatives

Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had secular political beliefs and rituals around which they sought to unite society.

what is an issue with the idea of functional alternatives

it ignores what make religion distinctive and different- namely, its belife in the supernatural

evaluation point on functionalism regarding social nature

emphasises the social nature of religion and the positive function it performs, but it neglects negative aspects, such as religion being a source of oppression of the poor or women

whats an evaluation point on functionalism regarding division

it ignores religion as a source of division and conflict, especially in complex modern societies where there is more than one religion e.g. Northern Ireland

where there is religious pluralism, it is hard to see how it can unite people and promote integration