Earth Science and Gamification in Science Education Study Guide

Comprehensive practice flashcards in question-and-answer format covering Earth Science (volcanism, crustal deformation, topographic mapping, seismology, geologic time, and evolution) and the systematic literature review on Gamification in Science Education (theoretical models, game mechanics, PRISMA methodology, and empirical outcomes).

What are volatiles in magma, and what is the relative abundance of the primary volatile gases?

Volatiles are dissolved gases trapped in magma. Water vapor ($H_2O$) is the most abundant volatile gas, comprising approximately $50\text{--}80\%$, followed by carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) and sulfur dioxide ($SO_2$).

How do silica content and temperature govern the viscosity of magma?

Silica content increases viscosity (making magma thicker and stickier due to silicate chain formation), whereas higher temperature decreases viscosity (making magma more fluid).

How do mafic (basaltic) and felsic (granitic) magmas differ in silica content, temperature, viscosity, and eruptive behavior?

Mafic magma has low silica content ($\sim 50\%$), higher temperature, low viscosity, and flows easily, producing effusive eruptions (e.g., Hawaii). Felsic magma has high silica content ($\sim 70\%$), cooler temperature, high viscosity, and traps expanding gases, producing explosive eruptions (e.g., Mount St. Helens).

What are the structural characteristics, compositions, and examples of shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and composite volcanoes (stratovolcanoes)?

Shield volcanoes are broad, gently sloping domes formed from fluid basaltic lava (e.g., Mauna Loa). Cinder cones are small, steep-sided cones composed of ejected pyroclastic fragments (e.g., Paricutin). Composite volcanoes are large, steep-sided cones with alternating layers of lava and pyroclastics, typically erupting felsic to intermediate explosive magma (e.g., Mount Fuji, Mount Rainier).

What styles of volcanism occur at convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and intraplate hot spots?

Convergent boundaries with subduction zones produce explosive composite volcanoes (e.g., Cascades, Andes). Divergent boundaries at mid-ocean ridges produce gentle mafic eruptions and submarine pillow lavas. Intraplate hot spots feature stationary mantle plumes that form volcanic chains as tectonic plates migrate above them (e.g., Hawaii).

What is the physical distinction between a pyroclastic flow and a lahar?

A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving ($100\text{--}700\,\text{km/h}$) avalanche of superheated gas, ash, and rock fragments (such as that which destroyed Pompeii). A lahar is a volcanic mudflow composed of mixed volcanic ash and water.

What are the three types of differential stress in rock deformation and their associated plate tectonic boundaries?

Compression squeezes rock together at convergent boundaries; tension pulls rock apart at divergent boundaries; and shear causes rock masses to slide past one another horizontally at transform boundaries.

Which four environmental and lithologic factors dictate whether rock deformation will be brittle or ductile?

Temperature (higher temperature favors ductile deformation), confining pressure (higher pressure favors ductile deformation), rock type, and strain rate (faster application of stress favors brittle fracture).

How do anticlines and synclines differ in geometric profile and internal stratigraphic age distribution?

An anticline is an arch-shaped fold where the oldest rock strata are located in the center. A syncline is a trough- or U/V-shaped fold where the youngest strata reside in the center and the oldest strata are exposed along the edges.

How do normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults differ regarding causative stress and hanging wall displacement?

Normal faults are caused by tensional stress and feature a hanging wall that moves downward relative to the footwall. Reverse faults are caused by compressional stress and feature a hanging wall that moves upward relative to the footwall. Strike-slip faults are caused by shear stress and feature horizontal block displacement with no vertical motion.

On a topographic map, how are steep slopes, depressions, and stream valleys represented by contour lines?

Steep slopes are depicted by closely spaced contour lines, depressions by closed circular contour lines bearing inward-pointing hachure marks, and stream valleys by V-shaped contour patterns that point upstream toward higher elevations.

How does the elastic rebound hypothesis describe earthquake generation?

Tectonic stress continuously builds along locked faults, causing rocks to deform elastically. When the accumulated strain exceeds the frictional strength of the rock, it abruptly ruptures along the fault plane, snapping back to an unstrained state and releasing stored energy as seismic vibrations.

What is the difference between an earthquake's focus (hypocenter) and its epicenter?

The focus is the exact subsurface point within the crust where fault rupture initiates and seismic energy is released. The epicenter is the geographic point on the Earth's surface situated directly above the focus.

How do P waves, S waves, and surface waves compare regarding particle motion, media permeability, and travel velocity?

P waves are push-pull compressional waves, travel through solids, liquids, and gases, and have the fastest speed. S waves are shear waves that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation, travel through solids only, and are slower than P waves. Surface waves exhibit rolling orbital motions restricted to Earth's surface, travel slowest, and cause the greatest structural destruction.

How are an earthquake's epicenter and distance from a recording station determined?

The distance from a seismograph station to the epicenter is calculated from the time interval between the initial arrivals of the P and S waves ($S-P$ lag time). Triangulating distance radii from three or more separate recording stations identifies the epicenter at their single point of intersection.

What is the difference between earthquake intensity and earthquake magnitude, and which measurement scales are used for each?

Intensity assesses the degree of ground shaking and observable damage at a given geographic location using the qualitative Modified Mercalli scale. Magnitude quantifies the absolute amount of seismic energy released at the source as a single invariant number per event, typically measured using the Moment magnitude scale.

What do the relative dating principles of superposition, original horizontality, and lateral continuity state?

Superposition states that in undeformed sedimentary sequences, older strata lie beneath younger strata. Original horizontality states that sedimentary layers are initially deposited as flat, horizontal beds; tilted strata were disturbed post-deposition. Lateral continuity states that sediment sheets extend outward in all directions until they taper out or terminate against a basin boundary.

What do cross-cutting relationships and the principle of inclusions state regarding the relative ages of geologic features?

Cross-cutting relationships dictate that any geologic structure (such as an igneous dike or fault) that intersects or cuts across rock strata must be younger than the rocks it cuts. The principle of inclusions states that any rock fragments incorporated inside another rock unit must be older than the surrounding host rock.

Why are igneous rocks preferred over sedimentary and metamorphic rocks for radiometric numerical dating?

Igneous rocks crystallize from molten material, locking radioactive parent isotopes into their mineral lattices at the precise moment of cooling. Sedimentary rocks consist of weathered clasts of diverse pre-existing ages, and metamorphism subjects rocks to recrystallizing heat and pressure that can reset or partially disturb isotopic ratios.

How do homologous structures differ from analogous structures in evolutionary biology?

Homologous structures share a common anatomical origin derived from a shared ancestor but may serve different functions (e.g., human arm, bat wing, whale flipper). Analogous structures serve similar physiological functions but evolved from independent anatomical origins via convergent evolution without shared ancestry (e.g., bird wing and insect wing).

What are the chronological boundaries and defining biological/geologic events of the four major geological eras?

Precambrian ($4.6\,\text{Ga}\text{--}541\,\text{Ma}$): Earth forms, origin of life, transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. Paleozoic ($541\text{--}252\,\text{Ma}$): Cambrian explosion, emergence of fish, land plants, amphibians, reptiles, assembly of Pangaea, ends with the Permian mass extinction. Mesozoic ($252\text{--}66\,\text{Ma}$): Age of reptiles/dinosaurs, breakup of Pangaea, ends with K-Pg asteroid impact. Cenozoic ($66\,\text{Ma}\text{--}\text{present}$): Age of mammals, radiation of primates, and appearance of humans.

How does Karl M. Kapp (2012) define gamification?

Kapp defines gamification as "the use of game design elements, game-play mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking for non-game applications to motivate students."

According to Landers (2014), what is the key instructional difference between serious games and gamification?

In serious games, learning is directly produced because the instructional content itself drives learning inside the game environment. In gamification, learning is facilitated indirectly by altering contextual learner behaviors, attitudes, or engagement levels through game elements.

What three innate psychological needs are posited by Self-Determination Theory (SDT), and what gamified design features support them?

The three needs are autonomy (supported by choice of paths, optional missions, or avatars), competence (supported by progress indicators, levels, badges, and immediate feedback), and relatedness (supported by social interaction, collaborative challenges, and teamwork).

What are the three regulatory types along Deci and Ryan's extrinsic motivation continuum in Self-Determination Theory?

Identified regulation (extrinsic motivation that is largely internalized, aligned with personal values, and functions similarly to intrinsic motivation), introjected regulation (partially internalized motivation driven by internal pressures such as ego or avoidance of guilt), and external regulation (non-internalized motivation maintained strictly by external incentives, points, or punishments).

According to Locke and Latham's Goal-Setting Theory, which four moderators link explicit goals to task performance?

Goal commitment, feedback received regarding task progression, task complexity, and situational constraints (e.g., time pressure, resource limits, or role overload).

What design conditions are required to induce a flow state in educational gamification according to flow theory?

Clear and proximal learning goals, immediate task feedback, visibility of progress, and a dynamic equilibrium between task challenge and user skill to prevent both boredom and anxiety.

What were the study selection numbers across the stages of the PRISMA review in Kalogiannakis et al. (2021)?

$5754$ records were retrieved in initial database searching; $5697$ were excluded after screening titles, duplicates, and dates; $57$ articles were evaluated for topical relevance; $29$ were excluded as unrelated science education topics; $28$ full texts were evaluated for empirical eligibility; $4$ were excluded for lacking empirical data; yielding a final sample of $24$ included empirical studies.

What were the most frequent data collection instruments used among the 24 empirical gamification studies in science education reviewed by Kalogiannakis et al.?

Questionnaires were the most frequent ($18$ studies), followed by academic tests and assessments ($11$), qualitative interviews ($9$), in-app game records and indices ($5$), and direct classroom observations ($3$).

What were the four most commonly implemented game design elements reported in the systematic literature review on science education?

Competition ($17$ studies), leaderboards ($13$ studies), points ($12$ studies), and progression levels ($12$ studies).

How were educational levels distributed among the 24 studies analyzed in the systematic review of science gamification?

Higher education accounted for $10$ studies, secondary education represented $9$ studies, and primary education accounted for $5$ studies.

What were the reported student learning results among the 24 studies examined by Kalogiannakis et al. (2021)?

$11$ studies reported statistically significant positive learning achievements, $2$ studies reported non-significant learning results, and $11$ studies did not evaluate or report explicit learning outcomes.

What ideological critique has been raised by educational researchers regarding the dominant use of PBL (points, badges, leaderboards) and competition in schools?

Scholars argue that PBL and competition reflect a neoliberal market logic that reframes education into quantified surveillance and reward systems, mimicking rote learning and conditioning students to work for extrinsic metrics rather than supporting autonomous, authentic scientific inquiry.