General Chemistry and Physics Comprehensive Study Set

What are the principal quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms) and what does each describe?

n (principal): Energy level/shell size

l (Azimuthal): Subshell shapes (s,p,d,f)

ml (Magnetic): Orbital orientation in space

ms (Spin): Electric spin (+1/2 or -1/2)

State the Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund’s Rule

Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electron in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers

Hund’s Rule: For degenerate orbitals (ex. p, d), electrons fill singly with parallel spins before pairing up

What is the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) and how does it relate to atomic radius?

Zeff is the net positive charge experienced by an electron (Protons - Shielding). Higher Zeff pulls electrons closer, decreasing atominc radius

Describe the periodic trends for Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy, and Electronegativity.

Atomic Radius: Increases down a group, decreases across a period

Ionization Energy: Decreases down a group, increases across a period

Electronegativity: Decreases down a group, increases across a period (Excluding noble gases)

What is the difference between an orbit and an orbital?

Orbit (Bohr model): A fixed, circular path for an electron

Orbital (Quantum model): A 3D probability map of where an electron is likely to be found

What is the difference between an ionic and a covalent bond?

Ionic: Transfer of electrons between a metal and nonmetal. Held by electrostatic attraction

Covalent: Sharing of electrons between two nonmetals

What is a metallic bond?

A lattice of metal cations in a “sea of delocalized valence electrons” This explains properties like conductivity, malleability, and ductility

How do you calculate formal charge?

Formal Charge = (valence electrons) - (lone pair electrons) - (0.5 * Bonding electrons)

What are the key steps for drawing a Lewis Structure?

1. Count total valence electrons

2. Draw the skeleton (least electronegative atom in the center)

3. Distribute electrons to form single bonds and complete octets

4. Form multiple bonds if needed to satisfy octets

5. Check formal charges (minimize them)

Rank the following intermolecular forces (IMFs) form weakest to strongest

London Dispersion Forces (LDF) < Dipole-Dipole < Hydrogen Bonding < Ion-Dipole

What is required for a molecule to participate in Hydrogen Bonding?

A Hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F), which interacts with a lone pair on another N, O, or F atom

What is the limiting regant?

The reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction, which determines the maximum amount of product that can be formed

What is the difference between theoretical yield, actual yield and percent yield?

Theoretical Yield: The maximum amount of product predicted by stoichiometry

Actual Yield: The amount of product actually obtained in an experiment

Percent Yield: (Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield) * 100%

What is Molarity (M) and molality (m)?

Molarity (M): moles of solute / liters of solution (Temperature dependent)

molality (m): moles of solute / kilograms of solvent (Temperature independent)

State the four colligative properties

Properties that depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity.

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

2. Boiling Point Elevation

3. Freezing Point Depression

4. Osmotic Pressure

What is the Ideal Gas Law?

PV = nRT (Pressure * Volume = moles * Gas Constant * Temperature)

What are the two key assumptions of the Kinetic Molecular Theory?

1. Gas particles have negligible volume and no intermolecular forces.

2. Gas particles are in constant, random motion and collide elastically (no energy lost)

State the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

1st Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed (ΔU = Q - W)

2nd Law: The total entropy of the universe is always increasing (ΔS_univ > 0)

(Positive): The process is spontaneous. It will occur naturally.

What is the equation for Gibbs Free Energy and what does each term mean?

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

ΔG: Change in Gibbs Free Energy (Spontaneity)

ΔH: Change in Enthalpy (heat)

T: temp in K

ΔS: Change in Entropy (disorder)

Under what conditions is a reaction always spontaneous?

When ΔH is negative (exothermic) and ΔS is positive (increasing disorder). ΔG will always be negative

According to Le Chatelier’s Principle, what happens if you increase the pressure on a gaseous equilibrium reaction?

The equilibrium will shift to the side with fewer moles of gas to relieve the pressure.

What is the difference between Kc and Q?

Kc (equilibrium Constant): The ration of products to reactants at equilibrium

Q (Reaction Quotient): The ratio at any given moment

If Q < K, reaction proceeds forward. If Q > K, reaction proceeds in reverse.

What is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?

pH =pKa + log([A-]/[HA]). It’s used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution

What is the pH at the half-equivalence point of a weak acid titration?

pH = pKa. At this point, [HA] = [A-]

What is Ksp?

The solubility product constant. It is the equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a sparingly soluble ionic solid.

What is the difference between a scalar and a vector? Give examples

Scalar: Magnitude only (ex. speed, distance, mass, energy)

Vector: Magnitude and direction (ex. velocity, displacement, force, accleration)

List the four key kinematic equations for constant acceleration.

1. v = v₀ + at

2. Δx = v₀t + ½at²

3. v² = v₀² + 2aΔx

4. Δx = ½(v₀ + v)t

State Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

1. Inertia: An object in motion stays in motion, an object at rest stays at rest, unless acted on by a net force

2. F=ma: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass

3. Action-Reaction: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

What is a Free Body Diagram (FBD)?

A diagram showing all the forces acting on a single object. The object is drawn as a point, and forces are drawn as arrows originating from that point

What is the normal force?

The force exerted by a surface on an object, perpendicular to the surface. It is a contact force

What is the difference between static and kinetic friction?

Static Friction (fs) Force that opposes the start of motion. fs ≤ μsN

Kinetic Friction (fk): Force that opposes ongoing motion. fk = μkN

How do you set up FBD problems for inclined planes?

Tilt your coordinate system so the x-axis is parallel to the incline and the y-axis is perpendicular. Gravity (mg) must be broken into components: mg*sin(θ) down the incline and mg*cos(θ) perpendicular to the incline.

State the Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. In a Closed system, the total energy is constant. KE_initial + PE_initial = KE_final + PE_final (if non-conservative forces like friction)

What is the equation for power?

Power = Work /time = (Force*distance) / time = Force * Velocity

What is the work-energy theorem?

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy. W_net = ΔKE

What is the relationship between density, pressure, and depth in a fluid?

Pressure increases with depth. P = P₀ pgh (where p is density, g is gravity, h is depth)

State Archimedes’ Principle

The buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. F_Buoyant = p_fluid V_displaced * g

What does Bernoulli’s Principle

The buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object

What is Coulomb’s Law?

The force between two point charges is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. F = k q₁ q₂ / r².

What is the difference between an electric field and electric potential?

Electric Field (E): A vector field. Force per unit positive charge. E = F/q

Electric Potential (V): A Scalar. Electric potential energy per unit charge. V = U/q

State Ohm’s Law and the equations for power in a circuit

Ohm’s Law: V = IR (Voltage = Current * Resistance)

Power: P = IV = I²R = V²/R

How are resistors and capacitors arranged in series and parallel?

Resistors:

• Series: R_eq = R₁ + R₂ + ...

• Parallel: 1/R_eq = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ...

Capacitors:

• Series: 1/C_eq = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + ...

• Parallel: C_eq = C₁ + C₂ + ...