AP Psychology Unit 1

CT/CAT

X-ray of the brain’s anatomy

MRI

uses magnetic fields to create an image of the brain

EEG

monitors the brain’s electrical activity

Lesion

damage the brain to see what happens

PET

shows which parts of the brain are consuming the most (radioactive) sugar

fMRI

uses magnetic fields to show how the brain is operating in real time

evolutionary perspective

how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved to enhance survival and reproductive success

natural selection

organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

genes

inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities

twin studies

examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to access the relative influence of genetics and environments on traits and behaviors.

adoption studies

investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics vs environment on various traits and behaviors.

family studies

analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit

heredity

the transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

heritability

how much (%) of our traits come from our genes as opposed to environment

genetic predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones

epigenetics

investigates how the environment may affect genetic expression (nature via nurture)

frontal lobes

located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and personality expression

prefrontal cortex

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning

executive functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

motor cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, motor learning, and controlling voluntary movements of the body (it sends signals to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and grasping objects)

parietal lobes

located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

somatosensory cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints (it interprets touch, pressure, temperature, and pain signals from different parts of the body, allowing us to perceive and respond to sensory stimuli)

occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes (it contains the primary visual cortex, which interprets visual stimuli and helps us perceive shapes, colors, and motion)

temporal lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation (they contain the auditory cortex, which interprets sound signals from the ears)

hindbrain: brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles (it serves as a pathway for neural signals traveling between the brain and the rest of the body, connecting the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord)

hindbrain: brainstem (medulla)

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential automatic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure (it serves as a relay station for nerve signals traveling between the brain and the spinal cord, controlling involuntary bodily processes crucial for survival)

hindbrain: brainstem (pons)

midbrain: reticular activating system

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness (it filters sensory information and modulates overall brain activity, helping to maintain wakefulness and alertness)

hindbrain: cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture (it receives input from sensory systems and other parts of the brain to fine-tune motor movements and ensure smooth coordination)

thalamus

a relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex (it acts as a gateway for sensory input, directing signals to the appropriate areas of the brain for further processing)

limbic system

located beneath the cerebral cortex, is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

limbic system: hypothalamus

a small but powerful structure located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle (it serves as a control center helping to maintain homeostasis in the body)

limbic system: hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain’s temporal lobes, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

limbic system: amygdala

small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain’s temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

Broca’s area

in the left frontal lobe, responsible for speech production

damaged Broca’s area

person struggles to get words out or put together sentences

Wernicke’s area

in the left temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension

damaged Wernicke’s area

person uses nonsensical words and struggles to comprehend words or sentences

plasticity

the brain’s ability to recognize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes

contralateral hemispheric organization

the phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body (sensory information received by one side of the body and is processed by the opposite hemisphere of the brain)

hemispheric specialization

explored through split brain research, refers to the concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities (ex: language processing in the left, spatial awareness and facial recognition in the right)

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision-making (it his highly folded to increase its surface area, allowing for complex neural processing and integration of informaiton)

reward center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres

association areas

they’re parts of the brain that take information from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, and touch—and put it together to help us understand the world around us

nervous system

the body’s communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

nervous subsystems: central

consists of a brain and spinal cord; it serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing information, coordinating responses and regulating bodily functions

nervous subsystems: peripheral

consists of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; it serves as a communication network, transmitting sensory information from the body to and from the central nervous system

nervous subsystems: somatic

division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system

nervous subsystems: autonomic

regulates involuntary bodily functions; operates automatically, without conscious control (consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic)

nervous subsystems: sympathetic

responsible for activating the body’s “fight or flight” response in times of stress or danger

nervous subsystems: parasympathetic

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger; it slows heart rate, constricts airways, and enhances digestion, allowing the body to conserve energy and recover from stressors

neuron

specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body (consists of three main parts: the cell body/soma, dendrites, and axon)

glial cell

the “support cells” of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons (play essential roles in maintaining brain health and supporting neuronal function)

neurons: motor (efferent)

nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling movements

neurons: sensory (afferent)

specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles and organs, to the CNS (they detect various stimuli, like touch, temperature, and environmental changes, and convert these stimuli into electrical signals that can be processed by the brain)

neurons: interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons

reflex arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic reflexes to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes) (they protect the body and enable quick reactions to potential danger)

endocrine system

a system of glands and organs that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream to control many functions in the body

hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate various physiological processes and behaviors

hormones: melatonin

hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body (plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s internal clock and ensuring restful sleep)

hormones: oxytocin

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding (often referred to as the “love hormone” or “bonding hormone” due to its involvement in forming emotional connections, trust, and intimacy)

hormones: adrenaline

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body’s stress response, “fight or flight” response (adrenaline levels surge during times of stress, fear, or excitement, helping the body adapt to challenging circumstances)

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body; it is involved in the body’s “fight or flight” response, regulating arousal, attention, and stress

neurotransmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals

excitatory

acceleration, send signals that encourage other neurons to fire

inhibitory

brake, send signals that discourage other neurons from firing

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron; it is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response

action potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron; it occurs when the neuron receives more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals from surrounding neurons (crosses the threshold)

all-or-nothing principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength (if the stimulus is strong enough to trigger an action potential, the neuron will respond with a full-strength impulse; there is no such thing as a weak or lesser response)

resting potential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is at rest (it is maintained by the unequal distribution of ions, with more + sodium ions outside the cell and more - potassium ions inside)

depolarization

phase of action potential where positive ions (including sodium) rush into the cell, altering it from its negatively charged resting state; this change in electrical charge triggers the neuron to fire an action potential, initiating the transmission of an electrical impulse along the neuron’s axon

refractory period

brief period following an action potential during with a neuron is unable to generate another action potential (this period occurs because the neuron’s sodium channels are temporarily inactivated in the cell membrane returns to its resting state)

adrenal gland

helps trigger the “fight-or-flight” response (epinephrine, norepinephrine/adrenaline)

gonads gland (testes/ovaries)

secretes male/female sex hormones (androgens/testosterone, estrogens)

pancreas gland

regulates the level of sugar in the blood (insulin, etc)

pituitary gland

stimulates physical development, enables contractions, triggers sex glands to release sex hormones that influence behavior (growth, oxytocin, others)

pineal gland

regulates body rhythms (sleep, menstruation, other cyclical changes) (melatonin)

thyroid gland

affects metabolism (T3 and T4)

neuron: dendrite

receive messages from other cells

neuron: cell body (soma)

the cell’s life support center

neuron: axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or galnds

neuron: myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

neuron: nodes of Ranvier

small gaps in the myelin sheath; help accelerate electrical signals along the axon

neuron: receptor sites

chemical messengers bond to dendrites

synapse

region where the presynaptic neuron’s axon terminals almost touch the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrites

reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons (released from the presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons)

acetylcholine

aids memory, attention, muscle movement (usually excitatory)

dopamine

aids reward-based learning, voluntary motion (excitatory/inhibitory)

serotonin

regulates emotions and arousal/fatigue; regulating mood, sleep, appetite, stress (inhibitory) (ESSENTIAL for mental health)

norepinephrine

engages fight or flight response, boosts mood and learning; regulating arousal, attention, stress (excitatory)

GABA

offsets and controls excitatory signals, promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety (PRIMARY inhibitory)

glutamate!!

aids in memory, learning, and movement (PRIMARY excitatory)

endorphins

limits pain/stress and boosts positive emotions; natural pain relievers and mood enhancers(inhibitory)

substance p

transmitting pain signals in the nervous system

Parkinson’s Disease

deficit of dopamine

Alzheimer’s

deficit of acetylcholine

Multiple Sclerosis

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord (it occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers, causing inflammation and damage)