Sport Psych - Exam 2 Study Guide

Chapter 6-11

Competition

A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event.

Cooperation

A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal.

T/F: Competition occurs when rewards (tangible or intangible) are distributed to people unequally as it is related to their performance or “being the best”

True

Pros of Competition:

• It is exciting

• Fosters cooperation

• Develops motional control

• Enhances learning of physical skills

Cons of Competition:

• Can foster aggressive behaviors

• Can lead to dropouts AND burnout

• Poses threats to self-esteem

• Can lead to injuries

Competitive reward structures are useful in simple and short physical tasks, BUT are ____ effective than cooperative reward structures for tasks that are complex and involve solving difficult problems.

They are LESS effective for tasks that are more complex.

De-competition

Situations where opponents see each other as rivals and strive against each other to not only win the competition but to beat/annihilate their competition as opposed to seeing each other as cooperators/partners.

Martens - 4 Stages of Competition Process Model

1. Objective Competitive Situation

2. Subjective Competitive Situation

3. Response

4. Consequences of the response

Objective Competitive Situation

A situation that involves a standard for comparison of at least one person; The comparison can be an individual’s past performance level, an idealized performance level, OR another individual’s performance level.

(The criteria for comparison is known by at least one person who is in a position to evaluate the performance.)

Subjective Competitive Situation

Involves how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation!

(Here, an individual’s unique background and attributes can influence their subjective appraisal of the competitive situation)

Example of a Subjective Competitive Situation: (SCS)

Example of SCS: A gymnast looking forward to a competition to gain experience whilst another gymnast is DREADING the competition.

Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)

Questionnaire that provides a reliable and valid measure of competitiveness.

(Found 3 types of competitive orientations: competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation)

Competitiveness

An enjoyment of competition and a desire to strive for success in competitive sports settings.

(AKA competitive people LOVE to compete and actively seek these situations out)

Win Orientation

A focus on interpersonal comparison and winning in a competition.

(In this orientation, it is more important to beat others than to improve personal standards)

Goal Orientation

A focus on personal performance standards.

(In this orientation, the goal is to improve one’s performance, not to win!)

Elite athletes score high on both ___ orientations and ___ orientations.

On Win and Goal orientations

Response

How an individual decides to either approach or avoid a situation.

(occurs after appraising the situation)

Responses can occur at which levels?

They can occur at the behavioral, physiological or psychological level

(AND CAN OCCUR AT ALL 3 AT ONCE)

Consequences

How results are processed following a comparison of an athlete’s standard of competition.

These consequences can be either positive or negative.

Competition is a ____ social process that is also influenced by the social environment.

Competition is a LEARNED social process.

Triplett’s Cyclists (1898)

FOUND: Cyclists were faster when racing against or with another cyclist than when racing alone against the clock.

Deutsch’s Puzzles (1949)

FOUND: Students in the competitive group were self-centered, directed their efforts at beating others, had closed communication, and exhibited group conflict and mistrust. WHILE Students in the cooperative group, communicated openly, shared information, developed friendships, and solved MORE puzzles.

What are some ways that competitive conflicts can be resolved?

They can be resolved through communication, coordination, shared goals, and control of threat.

Does aggression and hostility stem from competition?

No, they stem from the focus a person placed on doing whatever it takes to win, even if that means playing unfairly or harming others.

(Only a small percentage of sports competition leads to aggressive behavior)

The way individuals view competition determines whether its effect is ___ or ____

Whether its effect is positive or negative.

Competition and Cooperation Effects on Performance - Johnson & Johnson (1985)

Found: Cooperation produced higher achievement and performance than competition and individualistic/independent work

(Only 6 to 8 studies showed the opposite.)

Cooperative instructions produce the ___ performance.

Produce the BEST performance.

Cooke at al, (2011) - Hand Dynamometer Competition

FOUND: Participants performed better at the hand dynamometer task when competing against others as opposed to when doing it alone.

Appropriate Competition Characteristics:

• It is voluntary

• The importance of winning is not so high that it causes disabling stress

• Everyone must have a reasonable chance to win,

• Rules are clear and fair

• Relative progress can be monitored.

Landkammer et al., (2019) - Team vs Individual Athletes Competition & Cooperation

FOUND: Team athletes more easily accept competing and cooperating with the same individual than individual sport athletes.

Youth sport programs are important to youth’s psychosocial development and providing opportunities to learn important life skills such as _____

Such as cooperation, discipline, leadership, and self-control.

Definite Dozen Principles:

1. Respect yourself and others

2. Take full responsibility

3. Develop and demonstrate loyalty

4. earn to be a great communicator

5. Discipline yourself so no one else has to

6. Make hard work your passion

7. Work smart, not just hard

8. Put the team before yourself

9. Make winning an attitude

10. Be a competitor

11. Change is a must!

12. Handle success like you handle failure

Prisoner’s dilemma - Competitive vs Cooperative (Kelley & Stahelski 1970)

FOUND: Cooperators began by cooperating but acknowledged they were forced into competitive responses by their opponents. WHILST the competitors perceived only the conflict of the game and were oblivious to the cooperative overtures being offered.

Kohn’s Competition’s Negative Consequences List:

• Creates stress, which interferes with optimal performance

• People focus attention on beating others rather than on performing well

• Fosters insecurity and undermines self-esteem

• Fosters interpersonal hostility, prejudice, and aggression

• Creates undue envy, humiliation, and shame.

Varsity athletes have ___ grade point averages and higher educational aspirations than those who do not participate on varsity teams.

Have higher grade point averages & aspirations

Adolescents participating in sport demonstrated increased self-esteem only when they ___

Only when they also displayed high levels of sport competence.

Integrated Cooperation and Competition Approach

An integrated approach that offers the greatest opportunities for personal development and satisfaction. It includes both competitive and cooperative elements and has been found to lead to higher levels of both performance and intrinsic motivation.

The positive outcomes produced by cooperative efforts are familiar to those found in what settings?

Found in business, educational, and organizational settings

Component Structure of Games Categories:

• Competitive means - Competitive ends

• Cooperative means - Competitive ends

• Individual means - Individual ends

• Cooperative means - Individual ends

• Cooperative means - Cooperative ends

Competitive Means — Competitive Ends - Category

The goal is to beat someone else or everyone else from outset until the end.

Cooperative Means — Competitive Ends - Category

When participants cooperate in their group but compete outside of their group.

Individual Means — Individual Ends - Category

One or more players pursue an individual goal without cooperative or competitive interaction.

Cooperative Means — Individual Ends - Category

Individuals cooperate and help each other achieve their ownnn goals.

Cooperative Means — Cooperative Ends - Category

Players cooperate with each other from the outset until the end.

When youths get together and play on their own, they are interested in what FOUR things?

1. Action, especially leading to scoring

2. Personal involvement in the action

3. Closely matched teams

4. Opportunities to reaffirm friendships during the game

Cooperation enhances ___

It enhances enjoyment of an activity, communication, and the sharing of information.

One way to enhance both competition and cooperation is through the use of ____

Through the use of team-building activities

Guidelines for Teachers/Coaches to Use Competition & Cooperation is Sports/Games:

• Individualize instruction to meet each person’s needs

• Structure games for children to include both competitive AND cooperative elements

• When competition leads to fierce rivalry, use superordinate goals to bring the groups together.

• Provide positive feedback and encouragement regardless of the competition’s outcome

• Stress cooperation to produce trust AND open communication

• Provide opportunities for both the learning of sports skills and the practice of said skills

General Principles for Cooperative Games:

• Maximize participation

• Maximize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills

• Do not keep score in games

• Give positive feedback

• Provide opportunities for youngster to play different positions

Reinforcement

The use of rewards and punishments that increase OR decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future.

2 Main Principles of Effective Reinforcement:

1. If doing something results in a good consequence (aka being rewarded), people will tend to try to repeat the behavior to receive additional positive consequences

2. If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (aka being punished), people will tend to avoid repeating that behavior so they can also avoid more negative consequences.

Problems with Reinforcers:

• The same reinforcer will affect two people entirely differently

• People cannot always repeat the reinforced behavior

• One must consider all reinforcements available as well as how they value them

Positive Reinforcement Approach

Focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future.

Negative Reinforcement Approach

Focuses on punishing or criticizing undesirable behavior, which in turn should reduce the inappropriate behaviors.

The Positive Coaching Alliance, which trains youth sports coaches, recommends what ration of positive to negative feedback?

Recommends a 5-to-1 ratio.

Rewards and incentives are only effective for what span of time?

They are only effective for less than six months, as any longer than that and behaviors at baseline will be reinstated when incentives are now withdrawn.

(So, incentives are MORE effective in initiating behavior rather than maintaining it)

High/Low Financial Incentive Study - (Moller et al)

FOUND: Individuals who were low in financial motivation grew to enjoy fruits and vegetables and physical activity more, and food high in saturated fats less AND for individuals high in financial motivation, the potential for these adaptive changes was undermined, because they had less intrinsic motivation to make changes long term.

Kinds of Reinforcers:

• Social reinforcers

• Material reinforcers

• Activity reinforcers

• Special outings

Extrinsic Rewards

Rewards that people receive from others and come from external sources.

(Such as receiving praise from a coach/teacher)

Intrinsic Rewards

Rewards that reside within the participant.

(Such as feeling pride in accomplishment)

What factors can also ensure whether rewards are effective?

Timing and Frequency can ensure whether rewards are effective.

Continuous vs. Intermittent Feedback - (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2004)

FOUND: Giving 100% or continuous feedback after every attempt was far better for performance during practice BUT when taking tests of retention without any feedback the next day, participants with only 50% or intermittent feedback performed better.

Shaping

Rewarding small improvements as the skill is learned.

(This allows people to continue improving as they get closer to the desired response)

One Should Reward Which Kinds of Appropriate Behaviors?

Appropriate Behaviors that Should be Rewarded:

• Successful Approximations

• Performance, not only the Outcome!

• Effort

• Emotional and social skills

Youth Responses to Feedback (Mueller & Dweck, 1998)

FOUND: Performers who received effort-oriented feedback (“Good try”) displayed better performance than those provided with ability-oriented feedback (“You’re talented”), especially after failure.

After failure, children who were praised for effort displayed more task persistence, task enjoyment, and better performance.

One can help participants by giving them information and feedback related to what?

By giving them information and feedback about the accuracy and success of their movements.

(This type of feedback is usually given after the completion of a response.)

Performance feedback is used as a technique for improving performance in ___

Improving performance in Business, Industry, and Sport

Motivational Feedback Facilitates Performance in These 3 Ways:

1. Enhance confidence, inspire greater effort, energy expenditure, and create a positive mood.

2. Serve as a valuable reinforcement to the performer.

3. Establish goal-setting programs.

Instructional Feedback Provides Information About:

Provides information about:

• Specific behaviors that should be performed

• Levels of proficiency that should be achieved

• The performer’s current level of proficiency in the desired skills AND activities

Knowledge of Performance (KP)

Knowledge about the movement pattern that was used to accomplish the task goal.

Knowledge of Results (KR)

Refers to information about the outcome of the action.

Most researchers suggest that __% of reinforcement should be positive.

That 80% to 90% of reinforcement is positive

Factors in Support of Punishment:

• It deters future cheating or wrongdoings

• Individuals who cheat should be punished because they are not sharing, helping, or cooperating

• Cheaters will receive significantly lower rewards in the future because of their wrong doing, even if they benefit a bit beforehand

• Assigning punishments assures others that all individuals are held accountable for their actions AND their action’s effects on others

• It appears acceptable for coaches to deter unacceptable behaviors through punishment as it deters potential violators.

Criticisms of Punishment:

• Can be degrading or shame producing

• Arouses a fear of failure

• Can reinforce the undesirable behavior by drawing attention to it

• Can create an unpleasant, aversive learning environment that produces hostility and resentment between a coach and athlete

Guidelines for Maximizing Effectiveness of Punishment:

• Be consistent (give everyone the same punishment for breaking similar rules)

• Punish the behavior, NOT the person

• Allow athletes to have input in making up punishments

• Do not use physical activity or conditioning as a punishment

• Ensure the punishment is not perceived as a reward OR as a attention

• Impose punishment impersonally (aka do not berate or yell at them)

• Do not punish athletes for making errors while playing

• Do not embarrass individuals in rot of others

• Use punishment sparingly and enforce it when you use it

• Do not punish other teammates for an individual’s mistake

• Ensure punishment is age appropriate

• Make certain that athletes understand the reason for the punishment

Japanese vs English Player Reactions to Different Punishment - (Hagiwara & Wolfson, 2013)

FOUND: English players rated their coaches higher if they used verbal rather than physical punishment. However, Japanese athletes did not differ in how they viewed their coaches regardless of whether they use verbal or physical.

Different names for the systematic application of the principles of pos/neg reinforcement

Contingency management, behavioral coaching, and behavior modification.

4 Principles from Operant Conditioning:

• Systematic Use of Verbal Instructions and Feedback

• Positive and Negative Reinforcement

• Positive Practice

• Time Out

Systematic Use of Verbal Instructions and Feedback

Using the same words/phrases to describe movements and consistently offer feedback on performance at the same stage as in practice

Positive Practice

Entails a repeated set of movements in the proper technique made in controlled circumstances where improper movements cannot be made.

It is used to help imprint the correct technique

Time Out

The removal of players from practice or play when they exhibit incorrect behaviors (as to avoid reinforcing those negative behaviors)

Systematic reinforcement techniques can effectively modify various behaviors, including:

Can modify behaviors including specific performance skills, coaching and teaching behaviors, as well as reducing errors and increase exercising

Junior High School Basketball Behavioral Program Study:

FOUND: Jump shooting improved from 37% to 51%, Layups increased from 68% to 80%, and Foul Shooting improved from 59% to 67%.

Before program, there were also 4 to 6 instances of criticism during each practice session and 10 to 12 instances of encouragement amongst teammates, AFTER there were more than 80 of encouragement.

Behavioral guidelines for the initiation and maintenance of physical activity:

• Self-monitor

• Identify potential barriers

• Provide for social support

• Set realistic goals

• Enhance self-efficacy (confidence) for exercise

Characteristics of Effective Behavioral Programs:

• They emphasize specific, detailed, and frequent measurement of performance and behavior

• They recognize the distinction between developing new behavior and maintaining existing behaviors at acceptable levels (offer positive procedures for both of these)

• They encourage participants to improve against their own previous level of performance.

• They emphasize behavioral procedure that have been demonstrated by research to be effective

• They emphasize that the coach/leader/teacher should carefully monitor behavior in a systematic fashion so ineffective behaviors can be eliminated

• They encourage the leader to get feedback from participants regarding th effective of various aspects of the behavioral intervention.

Guidelines to Increase the Effectiveness of an Intervention Program

• Target and monitor the behaviors

• Define targeted behaviors

• Record the behaviors

• Provide meaningful feedback

• State the outcomes clearly

• Tailor the reward system

(Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004) - Sustained motivation of Elite Athletes

FOUND: Athletes are driven mainly by personal goals and achievements rather than financial incentives. But competing against and defeating an opponent is still important for some,

Social Factors that Affect One's Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport/Exercise:

• Success and failure (experiences that help define one’s sense of competency)

• Focus of competition

• Coaches’ behaviors (pos vs. neg)

Self-determination Theory

Theory that argues that competence, autonomy, and relatedness are the 3 basic human needs and the degree to which they are satisfied goes a long way in determining an individual’s intrinsic motivation.

3 Psychological Factors Affecting Motivation:

1. Need for competence (to feel confident and self-efficacious)

2. Need for autonomy (to have input into decision or “own” them in a way)

3. Need for relatedness (to care for others and have others care for you)

The ___ an individual is extrinsically motivated, the ___ that person will be intrinsically motivated.

The MORE they are extrinsically motivated, the LESS they will be intrinsically motivated.

SOMA Puzzle - (Deci, 1971)

FOUND: The time that rewarded participants spent with the SOMA puzzles (as opposed to reading magazines) was significantly less (106 seconds) than the time spent by individuals who had not been rewarded (206 seconds).

Types of Intrinsic Motivation:

• Knowledge

• Accomplishment

• Stimulation

Types of Extrinsic Motivation:

• Integrated Regulation

• Identified Regulation

• Introjected Regulation

• External Regulation

Integrated Regulation

The most developmentally advance form of extrinsic motivation in which activity is personally important because of a valued outcome rather than interest in the activity itself.

Identified Regulation

When the behavior is highly valued, accepted and judged by the individual and thus, they perform willingly even if the activity is not pleasant.

Introjected Regulation

When the individual is motivated by internal prods and pressures, but their behavior is still not considered self-determined as it is regulated by external contingencies.

(Ex: A trainer spends a lot of time in the gym to impress girl)

External Regulation

When the behavior is COMPLETELY controlled by external sources such as rewards and constraints.

Amotivation

Occurs when individuals are neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and thus, have pervasive feelings of incompetence and lack of control.

What four elements characterize a passion for a given activity?

1. Whether we love the activity

2. Whether we highly value an activity because it is important and meaningful

3. Whether we engage in the activity regularly

4. Whether the activity is a part of our identities as it comes to define us