social 1-2

Social thinking

• We construct our social reality 

• Our social intuitions are powerful  sometimes perilous

• Attitudes shape, and are shaped by, behavior

Social influence

___and dispositions shape behavior

Social relations

___ is a biological behavior

• feelings and actions toward people are sometimes negative or positive

Theory

An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events

Hypothesis

A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events

Correlational research

The study of naturally occurring relationships among variables.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical measure of the degree and direction of a relationship between two factors

Field research, correlational research, experimental research

Types of research

Field research

Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory

Experimental research

Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant)

Survey research

A method of measuring variables by surveying a representative sample of people

Random sampling

A survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion

Representative sample

A sample that adequately reflects the characteristics of the larger population being studied

Unrepresentative samples, order of questions, response options, wording of questions

Sources of survey bias

Unrepresentative bias

A sample that does not adequately represent the population

Order of questions

The sequence in which questions are presented can influence responses

Response options

The choices provided to respondents can influence how they answer

Wording of questions

The specific wording of a question can influence people's responses.

Framing

The way a question or issue is posed, which can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions.

Framing research

Research shows that carefully framed options can nudge people toward particular decisions without eliminating their freedom of choice

Experiment

A research method designed to determine cause and effect by creating a controlled situation in which researchers manipulate variables.

Random assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition.

Independent variable, dependent variable, control

Variables in experiment

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher manipulates

Dependent variable

The variable being measured

Control

Keeping relevant factors constant so researchers can determine the effect of the independent variable

Experimental condition

The group that receives the experimental treatment/manipulation.

Control condition

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment and provides a comparison

Replication

Repeating a research study, often with different participants, to determine whether the original finding can be reproduced.

Ethics of experimentation

Social psychological experiments must follow ethical principles to protect participants.

Informed consent

An ethical principle requiring researchers to tell participants enough about the research so they can decide whether they wish to participate

Deception

In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes

Debriefing

The postexperimental explanation provided to participants after a study.

Demand characteristics

Cues in an experiment that seem to tell participants how they are expected to behave

Mundane realism

The degree to which an experiment is sufficiently similar to everyday situations.

Experimental realism

The degree to which an experiment engages participants, causing them to become involved in the experience

Generalization

Applying findings from a research setting, particularly a laboratory, to people and situations outside that setting

“I”

The aspect of the self that actively perceives and thinks, the one that is aware of one’s experience, and the part of the self that organizes and interprets these experiences; in other words, it is the subjective part of the self

“Me”

The objective part of the self, the one that is being perceived, the object of one’s attention, thought, and perception

Self concept

The sum total of the beliefs that people have about themselves

Self schema

The elements of your self-concept, the specific beliefs by which you define yourself

Schema

Mental templates by which we organize our worlds

The ever-changing nature of self

• Self is ‘relational’ (Andersen and Chen, 2002) 

  • We draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relationships with significant others in our lives

• The ever-changing nature of the self, the way you define yourself is constantly changing. 

• Your self today is different, even if only subtly, from yourself of yesterday.

Spotlight effect

Seeing ourselves at center stage, thus intuitively overestimating the extent to which others’ attention is aimed at us

Illusion of transparency

The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others

Social comparison theory by Festinger

We compare ourselves with others because, for many domains and attributes, there is no objective yardstick with which to evaluate ourselves; other people are therefore highly informative.

Downward social comparison

Our own performance is compared with that of someone who is less capable than we are

Upward social comparison

Compare our performances on someone with higher or greater ability than us, which can be threatening our self image

Looking glass self

Other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves.

George Herbert Mead

We often come to know ourselves by imagining what significant others think of us and then incorporating these perceptions into our self-concept

Bem’s Self Perception Theory

An inference about yourself by watching your own actions

Self-knowledge

Derived from introspection, a looking inward at one’s own thoughts and feelings

Individualist (independent self)

• uniqueness

• Individuality

• Self reliant

Collectivist (interdependent self)

• sense of belongingness

• Less direct, more polte

• Gaining social approval

Self esteem

An affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations

Terror management theory

The theory that Self esteem helps us live a happy life thereby cope with the idea of inevitability of death

Competition with friends, siblings, or partner

Threat to self esteem

Low self esteem

• More vulnerable to anxiety, loneliness, and eating disorders, depression

• When feeling bad or threatened, those low in self-esteem often take a negative view of everything

• Extreme levels can lead to problems in life (depression, negative view)

High self esteem

• When good things happen, people with high self-esteem are more likely to savor and sustain the good feelings

• It fosters initiative, resilience, and pleasant feelings

• Extreme levels can lead to ethnocentrism

Narcissism

• lack of empathy

• Inflated self esteem

• Self centered

Self efficacy

• How competent we feel on a task

• Believing in our own competence and effectiveness

Self serving bias

Tendency to perceive oneself favorably

Self serving attributions

Attributing positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to something else

False uniqueness

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behavior

False consensus

The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors

Unrealistic optimism

Believing ourselves immune to misfortune

Defensive pessimism

The adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one’s anxiety to motivate effective action

Self presentation

Refers to our wanting to present a desired image both to an external audience (other people) and to an internal audience (ourselves)

Ingratiation, modesty, self promotion, self handicapping, self monitoring

Self presentation strategies (impression management)

Ingratiation

Flattery increases recipients’ self-esteem, and hence, increases their liking for the flatterer

Modesty

Can be extremely effective in increasing your likeability, even while it preserves high levels of perceived competence and honesty

Self-promotion

Strives to convey positive information about the self either through one’s behavior or by telling others about one’s positive assets and accomplishments

Self-handicapping

A strategy in which a person creates obstacles to his or her own performance either to provide an excuse for failure or to enhance success

Self monitoring

Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one’s performance to create the desired impression